Chapter 9 Memory AP Psych

 Memory  persistence of learning over time via the storage and retrieval of information  Information learned long ago is stored in long-term memory.  Other information, that we’re working on right now is stored in working memory.  Flashbulb Memory  a very clear or vivid memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

 Three kinds of memory 1.When we search our memories for a particular fact or a specific event, we draw it from episodic memory.  When we recall events in great detail it is called flashbulb memory. 2. Generic memory is our mental dictionary, our commonsense knowledge. Millions of facts: George Washington was our 1 st president. 3. Procedural memory consists of the skills and procedures you have learned. Throwing a ball, riding a bike, typing, playing an instrument etc. 4. Simon

 Sensory Memory  the immediate, initial recording of sensory information in the memory system  Working Memory  focuses more on the processing of briefly stored information

 Memory as Information Processing  similar to a computer  Use keyboard to write or get info in computer  Save to disk or hard drive  Read or print back info 3 Steps – Encoding, Storage and Retrieval  1.Encoding  the processing of information into the memory system  i.e., extracting meaning

 2.Storage  the retention of encoded information over time  3.Retrieval  process of getting information out of memory

Encoding EffortfulAutomatic

 Effortful Processing  requires attention and effort  can become automatic through practice/rehearsal.  After you hear a phone number, it will disappear unless you work to maintain it in consciousness.

 Automatic Processing  Walking to class today was done automatically – you just sort of got yourself here.  unconscious encoding of incidental information  space  time  well-learned information  word meanings (after practicing vocab, you just use them in a sentence.)  Athletic moves or techniques  Dancing  Lines from a play, words from a song.

 Rehearsal  conscious repetition of information  to maintain it in consciousness  to encode it for storage Experiments also confirm the benefit of a spacing effect. For better long term retention, cramming does not work as well as distributed study. The benefits of rehearsal are further demonstrated by the serial position effect. You will remember the last and first items better than the middle items. Also called the primacy and recency effect.

 Ebbinghaus used nonsense syllables  TUV ZOF GEK WAV  the more times practiced on Day 1, the fewer repetitions to relearn on Day 2  Spacing Effect  distributed practice yields better long- term retention than massed practice

Time in minutes taken to relearn list on day 2 Number of repetitions of list on day 1

 Semantic Encoding  encoding of meaning  including meaning of words  Acoustic Encoding  encoding of sound  especially sound of words  Visual Encoding  encoding of picture images So as you read this sentence, are you encoding the image of the words (visual), the sound of the words (acoustic) or are you encoding the meaning of the words (semantic)?

 Imagery  mental pictures  a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding.  Which of the following words then, will you most likely recall when asked later? typewriter, void, cigarette, inherent, fire, process?  Imagery is at the heart of many memory aids.  Mnemonics  Memory aids  What are some mnemonics that you know?  especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.

 Mnemonic is Greek for memory.  The Method of Loci -- imagine walking through a familiar series of locations -- associate each place with a visual representation of the to be remembered topic.  Try to use it to remember these words: lumberjack, dart, skate, hedge, colony, duck, furniture, stocking, pillow, mistress.  Use imagery to put a story to the words.  The Peg Word Method

 Chunking  organizing items into familiar, manageable units.  Can you remember these numbers?   How about now?  use of acronyms  HOMES--Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior  Roy G. Biv  Organized information is more easily recalled.

 Hierarchies  complex information broken down into broad concepts and further subdivided into categories and subcategories Encoding (automatic or effortful) Imagery (visual Encoding) Meaning (semantic Encoding) Organization ChunksHierarchies

 How does storage work?  Synaptic changes  Long-term Potentiation  increase in synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation  Strong emotions make for stronger memories  some stress hormones boost learning and retention  60 minutes propranalol  html html

 Amnesia : severe memory loss caused by brain injury, shock, fatigue, illness or repression. Vermont  Infantile amnesia : the forgetting of events before the age of three. Freud’s reasons?  Others believe that the hippocampus is not fully developed, therefore we’re incapable.  Antegrade amnesia : memory loss from trauma that prevents a person from forming new memories. Can remember stuff prior. Clip  Retrograde amnesia : Forget the period leading up to the event that caused damage.

 Explicit Memory  memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare  also called declarative memory  hippocampus--neural center in limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage  Implicit Memory  retention independent of conscious recollection  also called procedural memory

Types of long-term memories Explicit (declarative) With conscious recall Implicit (nondeclarative) Without conscious recall Facts-general knowledge (“semantic memory”) Personally experienced events (“episodic memory”) Skills-motor and cognitive Dispositions- classical and operant conditioning effects

 MRI scan of hippocampus (in red) Hippocampus

 What do you think is easier, recall or recognition?  Recall  measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier  as on a fill-in-the blank test.  Recognition  Measure of memory in which the person has only to identify items previously learned  as on a multiple-choice test. Can you recall the names of the 7 Dwarves? How about recognize them? Sneezy, Dopey, Sleezy, Happy, Cranky, Bashful, Grumpy, Sleepy, Dumby, Crazy, Doc, Dorky

 Relearning  memory measure that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material a second time  Priming  activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory

 Deja Vu (French)--already seen  cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience  "I've experienced this before.“ Context Effects : returning to where you once lived or a school you once attended may have flooded your brain with retrieval cues. Taking an exam in the same room you were taught may help.  Mood-congruent Memory  tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current mood  memory, emotions, or moods serve as retrieval cues  State-dependent Memory  what is learned in one state (while one is high, drunk, or depressed) can more easily be remembered when in same state

 We associate good or bad events with their accompanying emotions. When put in a good mood (someone gives you a nice compliment) you look at the world as a much better place. Happy people are more receptive to positive feedback, depressed people to negative feedback. So, your mood depends on the world around you, but how you perceive the world depends on your mood. Moods persist. When happy, you recall happy events which prolongs your good mood. When down, you recall depressing events, which prolongs that mood.

 After learning to move a mobile by kicking, infants had their learning reactivated most strongly when retested in the same rather than a different context (Butler & Rovee- Collier, 1989).

 Forgetting as encoding failure  Which penny is the real thing?

 Learning some items may disrupt retrieval of other information 2 types of interference:  Proactive (new is effected) Interference  disruptive effect of prior learning on recall of new information  Retroactive (old is effected) Interference  disruptive effect of new learning on recall of old information

 Motivated Forgetting  people unknowingly revise memories  Repression  defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories. If you remembered everything, you wouldn’t be very well off. Some things are better off forgotten. Old parking spots, old phone numbers, old restaurant orders, bad memories.

 Leveling : simplifying material  Sharpening : highlighting or overemphasizing some details  Assimilation : changing details to better fit the subject’s own background or knowledge.

 We filter information and fill in missing pieces  Misinformation Effect  incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event  Source Amnesia  attributing to the wrong source an event that we experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined (misattribution)

 Eyewitnesses reconstruct memories when questioned Depiction of actual accident Leading question: “About how fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?” Memory construction

 Memories of Abuse  Repressed or Constructed?  Child sexual abuse does occur  Some adults do actually forget such episodes  False Memory Syndrome  condition in which a person’s identity and relationships center around a false but strongly believed memory of traumatic experience  sometimes induced by well-meaning therapists

 Study repeatedly to boost recall  Spend more time rehearsing or actively thinking about the material  Make material personally meaningful  Use mnemonic devices  associate with peg words--something already stored  make up story  chunk--acronyms

 Activate retrieval cues--mentally recreate situation and mood  Recall events while they are fresh-- before you encounter misinformation  Minimize interference  Test your own knowledge  rehearse  determine what you do not yet know