1 Psychology 320: Psychology of Gender and Sex Differences Lecture 47

2 Office Hour Invitations February 8 th, 1:30-3:30, Kenny

3 Midterm Exam February 13 th : 30 multiple choice questions (1 point each). February 15 th : 5 extended response questions (2-6 points each, totaling 20 points). The exam is worth 20% of your final grade. The exam will be scored out of 50 points.

Please arrive on time to facilitate rapid distribution of the exams. Bring a pencil, eraser, pen, and student ID to the exam. All electronic devices must be stored prior to the exam. Bags and backpacks should be left at the front of the room. Valuables may be placed under your seat. Turn in extra copies of the exam at the start of the examination period; university policy requires that all exams be accounted for before students are permitted to leave the examination room. 4

5 Careers and Work 1. What forms of discrimination are encountered in the workplace? (continued)

6 3. discuss sex differences in work-place negotiations. 2. distinguish between supply-side theory and demand side-theory. By the end of today’s class, you should be able to: 1. review statistics regarding sex disparities in pay in Canada.

7 5. discuss methods to overcome the pay disparity between females and males. 4. define the terms: accumulation of disadvantage, maternal wall, and marital bonus.

8 What forms of discrimination are encountered in the workplace? (continued)

CountryWomen’s % of Men’s Earnings CountryWomen’s % of Men’s Earnings Canada72.0Greece83.8 United Kingdom75.7Italy85.7 United States77.9Spain86.8 Austria78.9France89.2 Netherlands78.9Denmark89.6 Ireland80.2Belgium92.7 Germany80.6Portugal Percent of Men’s Wages Earned by Women in Various Countries (International Labor Office, 2004; Statistics Canada, 2008; US Department of Labor, 2003)

10  Two theories have been proposed to account for the pay disparity between females and males:

11 (a) Supply-Side Theory (Human Capital Theory) Maintains that the characteristics of males and females account for the pay disparity. Examples of characteristics of males and females (i.e., “supply-side characteristics”) that may contribute to the pay disparity:

12 Number of hours worked. Occupational experience. Occupational choice: However, within occupations females are paid less than males. Educational background: No longer viable.

13 Negotiation of salary: Females are less likely than males to engage in salary negotiation (Babcock & Laschever, 2003; Walters et al., 1998).  Gerhart and Rynes (1991) found that males’ negotiations led to a 4.3% yearly salary increase, whereas females’ negotiations led to a 2.7% yearly salary increase:

14 Salary (Thousands of Dollars) Projected Salary of a Male and Female Over the Ages of 25 to 65 with a 4.3% and 2.7% Salary Increase Per Year, Respectively Age Accumulation of disadvantage

15  Females are less likely to engage in salary negotiation than males because they are more likely to (Barron, 2003):

16 1. feel unsure of “their worth.” 2. believe that they do not deserve to be paid more than others. 4. believe that conflict will jeopardize the negotiation relationship. 3. believe in meritocracy. 5. experience anxiety during the negotiation.

17 (b) Demand-Side Theory Maintains that discrimination accounts for the pay disparity. Examples of discrimination shown by employers: Some employers pay females less than males because they believe that females are less likely to relocate due to “family ties” (Helgeson, 2009).

18 Some employers penalize mothers but reward fathers because they believe that (a) mothers will be less productive than fathers and (b) fathers must support a family. Research (e.g., Correll et al., 2007; Cuddy et al., 2004; Heilman & Okimoto, 2008) has documented a “maternal wall” or “motherhood penalty” for females and a “marital bonus” or “paternal reward” for males:

19 3. Sex differences in pay are larger for couples with children than couples without children: 2. Respondents indicate a preference to promote and train a woman without a child than a mother, but a preference to promote and train a father than a man without a child. 1. Mothers are perceived as less competent and committed employees than women without children and fathers.

20 69% 77% 63% Weekly Earnings Percent Pay Gap As a Function of Parental Status (Dey & Hill, 2007) Maternal wall for females, marital bonus for males.

21 “Motherhood is now the single greatest obstacle left in the path to economic equality for women” (Crittenden, 2001). Research suggests that the maternal wall does not extend to lesbians.

22  Methods to overcome the pay disparity between females and males: 1. Train employees and employers to recognize unconscious biases. 2. Implement a pay equity law. 3. Implement a comparable worth policy.

23 Careers and Work 1. What forms of discrimination are encountered in the workplace? (continued)