Individual Differences Perceptions Attributions Attitudes Values Personality Motivation

Why are they important? They directly affect behavior. IDs Behavior They indirectly affect behavior. “X”Behavior IDs

Perceptions The process of making sense of one’s environment

The Process of Perceiving Picking up of Stimuli (Selective Attention) 1.Stimulus Selectivity 2.Personal Selectivity Interpretation of Stimuli (Encoding) (Storage & Retention) (Retrieval)

Perceptions ≠ Reality: Why? Picking up Stimuli (we notice things that aren’t there or miss things that are) Selective perception Contrast effect Projection Primacy/Recency Effects Hierarchical Bias Interpreting Stimuli (organization & recall) Schema Negativity bias Mood and emotions Individual differences Past Experience

Conclusions Our perceptions may not accurately represent reality. Our perceptions of someone else are not just based on their characteristics, but also on our own. Our behavior is a function of our perceptions (an ID) Consequently, perceptions are more important than reality in terms of understanding human behavior in organizations. We are not passive participants in this process of perceiving. We are active participants. In some cases, we may actually create what we “see”.

Implications for OB Perceptions and First Impressions Job interviews Initial interactions with others Beyond first impressions leadership problem solving self-fulfilling prophecies performance appraisals everyday interactions

Superior-Subordinate Perceptual Differences General Foreman’s Foreman’s Worker Rating Foremen Rating Foreman’s Self-Rating for Worker Self-Rating for Foremen Self-Rating High Wages (Economics) Getting Along with others (Social) Chance to do interesting work 28% 36% 22% 17% 39% 38% 58% 22% 14% 11% 43% 61% 17% 12%

Perceptual Differences: continued Workers ForemenForemen Top Mgmt. see say about see says about themselves Workersthemselves Foremen Feel free to discuss important things about job with boss. Always/nearly always tell subordinates about changes. Always/nearly always get subordinate ideas. Very often get a “pat on the back”for good ideas. 51% 85% 67% 90% 47% 92%63% 100% 16% 73%52% 70% 13% 82%

What do workers want? Supervisors ( about subordinates ) Subordinates ( about self ) 1.Good wages1. Appreciation of work done 2.Job security2. Feeling “in” on things 3.Promotion/growth in co.3. Help on personal problems 4.Good working conditions4. Job security 5.Interesting work5. Good Wages 6.Personal loyalty to workers6. Interesting work 7.Tactful disciplining7. Promotion/growth in company 8.Appreciation of work done8. Personal loyalty to workers 9.Help on personal problems9. Good working conditions 10.Feeling “in” on things10. Tactful disciplining

Attributions Are “perceptions” of causality Upon the occurrence of a behavior or event, we have the natural desire to explain what caused that event of behavior. The “causes” we use to explain the event or behavior affect how we feel about it and our expectations

Attributing the “Causes” of Behavior Locus Dimension Stability Dimension Causes of Behavior Internal External Stable AbilityTask Difficulty Variable EffortLuck

Common Attributional Biases Self-Serving Bias (Ego-Defensive Bias) Actor-Observer Bias (Fundamental Attribution Error) Gender Linked Bias Severity Bias Empathy Bias Liking Bias

Impression Management Tactics Self-handicapping Self-promotion Ingratiation Favors Apologies Excuses Manipulation of information Object Language

Attitudes Mental state of readiness, predispositions to react to something in a certain way Predispositions can be either Lightly held (changeable) Deep seated

Examples of Changeable Attitudes Job Involvement – degree to which one psychologically identifies with his/her work Organization Commitment – extent to which one identifies with an organization Job Satisfaction – degree to which one likes his/her job Others: Professionalism, union commitment, perceived organizational support

Values More fundamental beliefs about conduct or existence. heavily influenced by culture, historical era

Mystery Value Response Options: Strongly Disagree NeutralAgree Strongly Disagree Agree 1.Hard work makes a man or a woman a better person. 2.Wasting time is as bad as wasting money. 3.A good indication of a person’s worth is how well he or she does on the job. 4.If all other things are equal, it is better to have a job with a lot of responsibility than one with little responsibility.

Perceptions, Attitudes & Values Perceptions – affect our behavior via our sensory stimuli Attitudes – affect our behavior via the predispositions we hold about things. Lightly held Deep seated Values – affect our behavior through our beliefs about right and wrong, good and bad.

Perceptions, attitudes & values: examples ISU is a research institution. Perception I like ISU. I like teaching. Research is a more important activity than teaching. Attitudes Value

Questions surrounding personality Where does personality come from? Can personality change? How do we describe one’s personality? Comprehensive measures – Big Five Individual Traits How useful is information on personality?

Personality: Heredity vs. Environment Personality is: 50% determined by Heredity/genetics 20-35% determined by the environment 15-30% transient states & measurement error Based on data from identical twins raised together and apart

Big Five Personality Dimensions Extraversion- Intraversion Agreeableness Conscientiousness Emotional Stability – Neuroticism Openness to experience

Some Individual Personality Traits Authoritarianism Ascendent Tendency (Machiavellianism) Dogmatism Locus of Control

Internals vs Externals Job SatisfactionInternals tend to be more satisfied than externals Self controlInternal tend to exhibit more self control Risk TakingInternals tend to engage in less risky behavior AbsenteeismInternals are absent less than externals ExpectanciesInternals see a stronger connection between what they do and what happens to them. Leader BehaviorInternals prefer participative leaders, externals prefer directive leaders IndependenceInternals are more independent, less susceptible to others’ influence

Validity Issues & Personality Predictive Validity Construct Validity Differential Validity

Handling Individual Differences Less Permanent More Situational More Permanent Subject to Influence Take as a given Perceptions Attributions Attitudes Values Personality Lightly- Deep- Held Seated Highly Variable Influenced byHas a within & across Work group,biological individualspeerscomponent