CHAPTER 1: Introducing Psychology and its Methods Essentials of Psychology, by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

What Is Psychology? –The scientific study of behavior and the mind. Historical Roots Expansion of Psychology’s Horizons A Diversity of Perspectives Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

What is Psychology? Historical Roots Dualism –The assumption that the body and mind are separate, though perhaps interacting, entities. –René Descartes ( ) was a dualist, and believed that the mind could not be studied scientifically. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

What is Psychology? Historical Roots Pioneers in the Study of the Mind –Wilhelm Wundt Established the first psychology laboratory in 1879 and developed introspection. –Wundt’s method of having trained observers report on their conscious, moment-to-moment reactions. –William James Published Principles of Psychology, Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

What is Psychology? Historical Roots Pioneers in the Study of the Mind, continued –Sigmund Freud Introduced psychoanalysis in The Interpretation of Dreams, Psychoanalysis is Freud’s theory of personality and method of psychotherapy, both of which assume the importance of unconscious processes. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

What is Psychology? Historical Roots The Behaviorist Alternative –In 1913, John B. Watson defined psychology as the study of behavior, offering an alternative to mentalistic approaches and marking the start of behaviorism in the United States. –Behaviorism A school of thought that defines psychology as the scientific study of observable behavior –Focus on environmental influences –Dominated psychology from the 1920’s to the 1960’s Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

What is Psychology? Historical Roots The “Cognitive Revolution” –Many types of evidence suggested that behaviorism was too restrictive. These included studies of child development, animal behavior, and brain studies –Cognition A general term that refers to mental processes such as thinking, knowing, and remembering. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

What is Psychology? Expansion of Psychology’s Horizons Basic Research –“Pure science” research that tests theories and builds a foundation of knowledge. Applied Research –Research that aims to solve practical human problems. Examples of applied research areas include health, education, business, law, etc. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

What is Psychology? Expansion of Psychology’s Horizons In addition to psychology branching out in basic and applied areas of research (as seen in this graph of the dramatic increase in the number of published articles in psychology), it has become more diverse, including more female and minority psychologists and more psychologists from other parts of the world. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

What is Psychology? Expansion of Psychology’s Horizons Psychology as a Basic Science –Biological and Evolutionary Perspectives –Cognitive Perspectives –Developmental Perspectives –Social Psychological Perspectives –Clinical Psychology Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

What is Psychology? Expansion of Psychology’s Horizons Psychology as a Responsive Science –Health –Education –Psychology in the Workplace –Consumer Behavior –The Environment –The Legal System –Sports, Politics, etc. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

What is Psychology? A Diversity of Perspectives Discrimination impeded women and minorities. Some did succeed. –Harvard refused to grant the Ph.D. to Mary Whiton Calkins (1890’s) who became the first female APA President in –In 1920, Francis Sumner was the first African American to earn a Ph.D. in psychology. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

What is Psychology? A Diversity of Perspectives Although psychology has faced a history of discrimination in recruitment, today it is more diverse. Diversity considerations are important for both the areas of research and mental health. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Scientific Methods The Research Process Research Settings Psychological Measurements Research Designs Ethical Considerations Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Scientific Methods Scientific methods unify the discipline of psychology A basic goal in science is critical thinking –An approach to information that involves challenging assumptions systematic observations a reliance on evidence a careful scrutiny of the methods used to derive evidence Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Scientific Methods The Research Process The first step is to develop a theory. –An organized set of principles that describes, predicts, and explains some phenomenon. The second step is to form a hypothesis. –A specific testable prediction, often derived from a theory that provides operational definitions. An operational definition defines a research variable in terms of the procedures needed to control and measure it. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Scientific Methods The Research Process Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Scientific Methods Research Settings Laboratory research –Research conducted in an environment that can be regulated and in which participants can be carefully observed. Field research –Research that is conducted in real-world locations. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Scientific Methods Psychological Measurements Self-Report –A method of observation that involves asking people to describe their own thoughts, feelings, or behavior. Behavioral Observation –A form of research that is based on the firsthand observation of a subject’s behavior. Archival Research –A form of research that relies on existing records of past behavior. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Scientific Methods Research Designs No matter which research design is used in a study, researchers rely on statistics to analyze the results they collect. –Statistics is a branch of mathematics that is used for analyzing research data. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Scientific Methods Research Designs Descriptive Research Case studies –A type of research that involves making in-depth observations of individual persons. Survey –A research method that involves interviewing or giving questionnaires to a large number of people. Naturalistic observation –The observation of behavior as it occurs naturally in real-world settings Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Scientific Methods Research Designs Correlation –A statistical measure of how closely two variables are associated. –A correlation can range from -1.0 to Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Scientific Methods Research Designs Explaining a Correlation Start with 3 variables, (X, Y, & Z) where X and Y are correlated: –X may cause Y –Y may cause X –Z may cause X and Y Correlations indicate relationship patterns, not causes Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Scientific Methods Research Designs Experiments I –A research method in which the investigator varies some factors, keeps others constant, and measures the effects on randomly assigned subjects. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Scientific Methods Research Designs Experiments II Independent Variable –Any variable that the researcher manipulates in an experiment. –The proposed cause of change in the dependent variable. Dependent Variable –A variable that is being measured in an experiment. –Proposed to be affected by the independent variable. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Scientific Methods Research Designs Experiments III Experimental Group –Any condition of an experiment in which participants are exposed to an independent variable. Control Group –The condition of an experiment in which participants are not exposed to the independent variable. Random Assignment –The procedure of assigning subjects to groups. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Scientific Methods Research Designs Literature Reviews Replication –The process of repeating a study to see if the results are reliable enough to be duplicated. Generalizability –The extent to which a finding applies to a broad range of subject populations and circumstances. Meta-Analysis –A set of statistical procedures used to review a body of evidence by combining the results of individual studies. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Scientific Methods Ethics Considerations in Human Research Deception –A research procedure used to mislead participants about the true purpose of the study –If deception is used, debriefing is necessary. Informed Consent –The ethical requirement that prospective participants receive enough information to decide freely whether to participate in a study And, data must be kept confidential, discomfort must be minimized, and one must be free to withdraw at any time. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Scientific Methods Ethics Considerations in Animal Research Animal Welfare –Minimization of pain and stress and humane treatment are universally supported. –Allegations of mistreatment in laboratories are rarely supported by facts. Animal Rights –There is no consensus over whether animals have similar rights as humans. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Psychology Today Psychology as a Profession Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Psychology Today Biological Perspectives Evolutionary Psychology –A subfield that uses the principles of evolution to understand human social behavior. Behavioral Genetics –A subfield that examines the role of genetic factors on behavior. Behavioral Neuroscience –A subfield that studies the links among the brain, nervous system, and behavior. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Psychology Today Sociocultural Perspectives Cross-Cultural Research –A body of studies designed to compare and contrast people of different cultures. Multicultural Research –A body of studies designed to compare and contrast of racial and ethnic minority groups within cultures. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing