THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM The complex of organs and tissue which are necessary to exchange blood carbon dioxide (CO2) with air oxygen (O2) is called the respiratory system. It consists of Functional Division: Conductive & Respiratory portions. Anatomical Division: into Upper (Larynx) and Lower. Conductive Portion: Prepare the inspired Air (Pollutants, Temperature and Humidity) Structures that perform these functions. Respiratory Portion: Has structures which form the process of Gases Exchange (the exchange of CO2 and O2)

How the lungs work The lungs work after receiving air by: The air enters the nose or mouth where it is filtered, warmed, and moistened. The air then travels down the throat and enters the trachea. The air proceeds down the trachea, which branches into the left and right bronchi. These two main stem bronchi continue to branch into smaller bronchi and they eventually branch into bronchioles Broncho-Pulmonary Segments, Alveoli.

How the lungs work continued After the air reaches the bronchioles: The bronchioles end in sacs known as alveoli. They act as balloons that inflate when breathing in. Gas exchange occurs at the alveoli. The concentration of oxygen is greater in the alveoli during inspiration then in the capillaries so the oxygen will diffuse across the alveolar walls and enter the blood plasma and carbon dioxide undergoes the opposite process.

NASAL CAVITY & PARANASAL SINUSES

Nasal Cavity  The nasal cavity extends from the nostrils in front to the posterior nasal apertures or choanae behind  This is where the nose opens into the nasopharynx (Eustachian Tube)  The nasal vestibule is the area of the nasal cavity lying just inside the nostril

Nasal Septum  The nasal cavity is divided into right and left halves by The Nasal Septum  The septum is made up of the septal cartilage (Hyaline), the vertical plate of the ethmoid, and the vomer

Walls of the Nasal Cavity  Each half of the nasal cavity has a Floor, A Roof, A Lateral Wall, And A Medial Or Septal Wall  The Floor is formed by palatine process of maxilla and the horizontal plate of the Palatine Bone  The Roof is narrow and is formed Anteriorly beneath the bridge of the nose by The Nasal And Frontal Bones  In the Middle By The Cribriform Plate of the Ethmoid, located beneath the anterior cranial fossa

Walls of the Nasal Cavity  Posteriorly by the downward sloping body of the sphenoid  The Lateral Wall has three projections of bone called the superior, middle, and inferior nasal conchae  The space below each concha is called a Meatus

Sphenoethmoidal Recess  The Sphenoethmoidal Recess is a small area above the superior concha  It receives the opening of the sphenoid air sinus  The Superior Meatus lies below the superior concha  It receives the openings of the Posterior Ethmoid Sinuses

Middle Meatus  The middle meatus lies below the middle concha  It has a rounded swelling called the bulla ethmoidalis that is formed by the middle Ethmoidal Air Sinuses, which open on its upper border  A curved opening, the hiatus semilunaris, lies just below the bulla  The anterior end of the hiatus leads into a funnel-shaped channel called the Infundibulum, which is continuous with the frontal sinus  The Maxillary Sinus opens into the middle meatus through the hiatus semilunaris

Inferior Meatus  The Inferior Meatus lies below the inferior concha  It receives the opening of the lower end of the Nasolacrimal Duct, which is guarded by a fold of mucous membrane

Medial Wall (Nasal Septum)  The medial wall is formed by the nasal septum  The upper part is formed by the vertical Plate Of The Ethmoid And The Vomer  The anterior part is formed by the septal cartilage  The septum rarely lies in the midline, thus increasing the size of one half of the nasal cavity and decreasing the size of the other

Mucous Membrane  The vestibule is lined with modified skin and has coarse hairs  The area above the superior concha is lined with olfactory mucous membrane and contains nerve endings sensitive to the reception of smell  The lower part of the nasal cavity is lined with respiratory mucous membrane  A large plexus of veins in the submucous connective tissue is present in the respiratory region. Epitasis

Mucous Membrane  The presence of warm blood in the venous plexuses serves to Heat Up The Inspired Air as it enters the respiratory system  The presence of Mucus on the surfaces of the conchae Traps Foreign Particles and organisms in the inspired air  These particles are then swallowed and destroyed by gastric acid

Nerve Supply  The Olfactory Nerves from the olfactory mucous membrane ascend through the Cribriform Plate of the ethmoid bone to the olfactory bulbs  The nerves of Ordinary Sensation are branches of the Ophthalmic Division and the Maxillary Division of the Trigeminal Nerve

Blood Supply  The arterial supply to the nasal cavity is from branches of the Maxillary Artery, one of the terminal branches of the external carotid artery  The most important branch is the Sphenopalatine Artery  The sphenopalatine artery anastomoses with the septal branch of the superior labial branch of the facial artery in the region of the vestibule  The submucous venous plexus is drained by veins that accompany the arteries

Lymph Drainage  The lymph vessels draining the vestibule end in the Submandibular Nodes  The remainder of the nasal cavity is drained by vessels that pass to the Upper Deep Cervical Nodes

Paranasal Sinuses  The paranasal sinuses are cavities found in the interior of the maxilla, frontal, sphenoid, and ethmoid bones  They are lined with mucoperiosteum and filled with air  They communicate with the nasal cavity through relatively small apertures  The maxillary and sphenoidal sinuses are present in a rudimentary form at birth  They enlarge appreciably after the eighth year and become fully formed in adolescence

Drainage of Mucus  The mucus produced by the mucous membrane is moved into the nose by Ciliary Action Of The Columnar Cells  Drainage of the mucus is also achieved by the siphon action created during the blowing of the nose

Function of Paranasal Sinuses  The function of the sinuses is to act as resonators to the voice  They also reduce the weight of the skull  When the apertures of the sinuses are blocked or they become filled with fluid, the quality of the voice is markedly changed

Maxillary Sinus  The maxillary sinus is pyramidal in shape and located within the body of the maxilla behind the skin of the cheek  The roof is formed by the floor of the orbit, and the floor is related to the roots of the premolars and molar teeth  The maxillary sinus opens into the middle meatus of the nose through the hiatus semilunaris

Frontal Sinuses  The two frontal sinuses are contained within the frontal bone  They are separated from each other by a bony septum  Each sinus is roughly triangular, extending upward above the medial end of the eyebrow and backward into the medial part of the roof of the orbit

Sphenoidal Sinuses  The two sphenoidal sinuses lie within the body of the sphenoid bone  Each sinus opens into the sphenoethmoidal recess above the superior concha

Ethmoid Sinuses  The ethmoidal sinuses are anterior, middle, and posterior and they are contained within the ethmoid bone between the nose and the orbit  They are separated from the latter by a thin plate of bone so that infection can readily spread from the sinuses into the orbit

Ethmoid Sinuses  The anterior sinuses open into the infundibulum  The middle sinuses open into the middle meatus, on or above the bulla ethmoidalis  The posterior sinuses open into the superior meatus

Nasal Cavity The Nasal cavity is divided into three structurally and functionally different parts. The Vestibules (the first ~1.5 cm of the conductive portion following the nostrils) are lined with a keratinised stratified squamous epithelium. Hairs, which filter large particulate matter out of the airstream, and sebaceous glands are also present. At the transition from the vestibule to the respiratory region of the nasal cavity the epithelium becomes first stratified squamous and then pseudostratified columnar and ciliated. Mucus producing goblet cells are present in the epithelium.

The olfactory epithelium Formed by Olfactory Cells, Sustentacular Cells and basal cells. Basal cells can be identified by their location. Sustentacular cells are preferentially located in the superficial cell. Cilia are not visible and goblet cells are absent from the olfactory epithelium. Cilia do not move, because they Lack Dynein Arms which are necessary for cilial motility. The cell membrane covering the surface of the cilia contains olfactory receptors which Lightly stained rounded areas in the lamina propria represent bundles of Olfactory Axons in the lamina propria. Small mucous glands, Olfactory Glands Or Bowman's Glands,

Nasal Cavity, Olfactory Region, rat - Alcian blue & van Gieson

Respiratory region of the nasal cavity - H&E, van Gieson

The surface of the lateral parts of the nasal cavity is thrown into folds by bony projections called Conchae. These folds increase the surface area of the nasal cavity and create turbulence in the stream of passing air, both of which facilitate the conditioning (warming, cooling and filtration) of the air. Mucous and serous glands in the connective tissue underlying the epithelium, the lamina propria, supplement the secretion of the goblet cells. Superficial Blood Vessels Nasal Cavity

Pharynx The pharynx connects the nasal cavity with the larynx. The pharynx is either lined with respiratory epithelium (nasopharynx) or with a stratified squamous epithelium (oropharynx), which also covers the surfaces of the oral cavity and the oesophagus. Lymphocytes frequently accumulate beneath the epithelium of the pharynx. Accumulations of lymphoid tissues surrounding the openings of the digestive and respiratory passages form the Tonsils.

Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium Composed of one Layer of Cells All cells of this type of epithelium are in contact with the basement membrane, but not all of them reach the surface of the epithelium. Nuclei of the epithelial cells are typically located in the widest part of the cell. Consequently, the nuclei of cells which do or do not reach the surface of the epithelium are often located at different heights within the epithelium and give the epithelium a stratified appearance. The epithelium will look stratified but it is not - hence its name "pseudostratified". Pseudostratified columnar epithelia are found in the Respiratory System

Pseudostratified columnar epithelium