1 Psychology 320: Psychology of Gender and Sex Differences Lecture 15

2 Office Hour Invitations October 21 st, 11:30-12:30 Kenny

3 1. What are the consequences of gender stereotypes? (continued) Gender Stereotypes and Biological Theories of Sex Differences 2. What biological theories have been proposed to explain sex differences?

4 2. define the term “stereotype threat.” 1. generate examples to illustrate sex discrimination. 3. explain how stereotype threat influences performance. By the end of today’s class, you should be able to: 4. discuss the application of evolutionary theory to the study of sex differences.

5 5. define the terms: reproductive capacity and minimal parental investment. 6. relate sex differences in reproductive capacity and minimal parental investment to sex differences in sexual behaviour.

6 2. Sex Discrimination (continued) Examples:  2004: Class-action law suit, Betty Dukes et al. vs. Walmart.  2005: Class-action law suit, David Woods et al. vs. the State of California, WEAVE, and DVSAC. What are the consequences of gender stereotypes? (continued)

7 Sex discrimination can reinforce stereotypes by creating “self-fulfilling prophecies” (i.e., stereotype-consistent attributes among the targets of discrimination). Example: The differential treatment of boys and girls with respect to reading aptitude and interest.

8 Refers to the tendency for individuals to act in ways that are consistent with the stereotypes of their groups. 3. Stereotype Threat Results from anxiety that one will confirm negative stereotypes. The anxiety, in turn, hinders performance. Examples:

9 1. Koenig and Eagly (2005)  Recruited female and male university students.  Two conditions: Threat condition: Read a statement describing sex differences in performance on previous social sensitivity tests. Non-threat condition: No statement provided.

10 FemalesMales ThreatNon-ThreatThreatNon-Threat Mean Performance on Social Sensitivity Test (Koenig & Eagly, 2005)

11 2. Keller (2002)  Recruited female and male high school students.  Two conditions: Threat condition: Statement read to participants describing sex differences in performance on previous math tests. Non-threat condition: No statement read.

12 FemalesMales ThreatNon-ThreatThreatNon-Threat Number of Correct Answers on Math Test (Keller, 2002)

13 3. Shih, Pittinsky, and Ambady (1999)  Recruited Asian American female university students.  Three conditions: Female identity salient condition: Female identity made salient using demographic questions. Asian identity salient condition: Asian identity made salient using demographic questions. No identity salient condition: Neither identity made salient.

14 Female Identity Salient Asian Identity Salient No Identity Salient Proportion of Correct Answers on Math Test (Shih, Pittinsky, & Ambady, 1999)

15 What biological theories have been proposed to explain sex differences? Biological theories of sex differences can be classified into four groups: 1. Evolutionary Theories  Evolutionary psychologists have adapted Darwin’s theory of evolution to the study of sex differences.

16  Darwin maintained that organisms have two primary goals: to (a) survive and (b) reproduce.  Darwin argued that characteristics that enhance the survival and reproductive ability of organisms increase in frequency across successive generations, resulting in the “evolution” of the species.

17  Evolutionary psychologists maintain that males and females have evolved distinct characteristics in response to sex differences in reproductive capacity and minimal parental investment.

Psychology Reproductive capacity: Males > Females  Males: Can bear an almost unlimited number of offspring across the lifespan (maximum recorded to date: 900).  Females: Can bear 8 – 12 offspring across the lifespan. 18

Psychology Minimal parental investment: Females > Males  Females: Carry and nourish fetus for 9 months; nurse child after birth; during lactation, ovulation is suppressed.  Males: Engage in copulation. 19

20  Example 1: Sex differences in sexual behaviour Hypothesis: Given sex differences in reproductive capacity and minimal parental investment, males have evolved to seek more sexual partners than females and are less discriminating in their choice of sexual partners than females.

21 Evidence: Had confederates approach students of the opposite sex on campus. After saying “Hi, I’ve been noticing you around campus lately and I find you very attractive,” the confederates asked the students 1 of 3 questions: Clark and Hatfield (1984)

22 “Would you go out on a date with me tonight?” “Would you go back to my apartment with me tonight?” “Would you have sex with me tonight?” Percent Who Agreed Male Female

23 1. What are the consequences of gender stereotypes? (continued) Gender Stereotypes and Biological Theories of Sex Differences 2. What biological theories have been proposed to explain sex differences?