Chapter 2: Reality Modern Metaphysics: Spinoza Introducing Philosophy, 10th edition Robert C. Solomon, Kathleen Higgins, and Clancy Martin

Benedictus de Spinoza ( ) Born Baruch ben Michael, the son of Jewish refugees from the Spanish Inquisition Grew up in Amsterdam, a haven of toleration in a world of religious hatreds Studied to be a rabbi, making himself familiar with Christian theology as well

Always a recluse who made a living by grinding lenses; later ostracized by his fellow Jews for his heretical beliefs Best-known book is Ethics (1677), a reinterpretation of God as identical to the universe (pantheism) Concerned with the uselessness of human struggle in the face of a thoroughly determined universe

In the mind there is no absolute of free will; but the mind is determined to wish this or that by a cause, which has been determined by another cause, and this last by another cause, and so on to infinity – Spinoza, Ethics

Substance Maintains Aristotle’s notion of substance Substances have attributes, which are essential characteristics of a substance A mode is a modification of an attribute The cause of itself (causa sui) is like Aristotle’s prime mover, except it is identical to the universe

Axiomatic Structure Everything has an explanation for its existence, either by its reference to something else or by its being self-caused Thesis: there can be only one substance Spinoza attempts to prove that if there is more than one substance, the substances could have no possible relation to each other; therefore, there can be only one substance

Axiomatic Structure Not worried about the idea of an infinite regress: the universe extends back in time forever, has always existed, and at no time ever came into existence All of the things that we believe to be individual substances are in fact just attributes of the one substance

Mind and Body Our distinctions between our bodies and the rest of the physical universe are unwarranted There is but a single mind, and our individual minds are only part of it

God Proposition X: Spinoza proves that God, substance, and the cause-of-itself are all identical Next, he proves that God necessarily exists, then shows that God and universe are the same This position is called pantheism and was considered heresy; God has no existence independent of the universe on this account, and He cannot be the creator of the universe

God Spinoza believes in God, but he does not believe that God has a will or that God does anything Spinoza’s strong determinism: no action whether of man or God is ever free

Mind Mind is unextended Thought can grasp reality Although a radical determinist, Spinoza argues that understanding determinism can allow us to accept it gracefully