NEXT The Geography of the Indian Subcontinent Planned Cities on the Indus Indian Subcontinent Subcontinent—landmass that includes India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh World’s tallest mountain ranges separate it from rest of Asia SECTION 3 Continued... Map

The Indus River

The Ganges River The bank of the Ganges river in Varanasi is lined with temples, shrines and palaces below which are ghats - steps that lead down into the water. These allow residents and pilgrims to meditate and pray by the river or wash away sins by bathing in the holy waters. Other ghats are used for cremations. Each day, many bodies are burned here and the ashes scattered on the Ganges.

Rivers, Mountains, and Plains Mountains to north, desert to east, protect Indus Valley from invasion Indus and Ganges rivers from flat, fertile plain—theIndo-Gangetic Southern India, a dry plateau flanked by mountains Narrow strip of tropical land along coast

NEXT Monsoons Seasonal winds monsoons— dominate India’s climate Winter winds are dry; summer winds bring rain can cause flooding continued The Geography of the Indian Subcontinent SECTION 3 Map

Summer Monsoons The summer monsoons roar onto the sub-continent from the southwest. The winds carry moisture from the Indian Ocean and bring heavy rains from June to September.

Environmental Challenges Floods along the Indus unpredictable; river can change course Rainfall unpre- dictable; could have droughts or floods

Summer Floods

NEXT Civilization Emerges on the Indus SECTION 3 Earliest Arrivals About 7000 B.C., evidence of agriculture and domesticated animals By about 3200 B.C., people farming in villages along Indus River Planned Cities By 2500 B.C., people build cities of brick laid out on grid system Engineers create plumbing and sewage systems Indus Valley called Harappan civilization after Harappa, a city Image Continued...

Harappan Civilization

NEXT Harappan Planning City built on mud-brick platform to protect against flood waters Brick walls protect city and citadel— central buildings of the city Streets in grid system are 30 feet wide Lanes separate rows of house (which featured bathrooms) continued Civilization Emerges on the Indus SECTION 3

Mohenjo-Daro

NEXT Harappan Culture Language Had writing systems of 400 symbols; but scientists can’t decipher it. Culture Harappan cities appear uniform in culture; no great social divisions Animals important to the culture; toys suggest prosperity SECTION 3 Image Continued...

NEXT continued Harappan Culture SECTION 3 Role of Religion Priests were closely linked to rulers. Some religious artifacts reveals links to modern Hindu culture. Trade Had thriving trade with other peoples, including Mesopotamia.

NEXT Indus Valley Culture Ends Harappan Decline Signs of decline begin around 1750 B.C. Earthquakes, floods, soil depletion may have caused decline. Around 1500 B.C., Aryans enter area and become dominant. SECTION 3

The Aryans The Harappan civilization collapsed in about 1500 BC. At the same time, a group of people called the Aryans invaded the river valley and they destroyed what was left of the Harappan civilization. Unlike the Harappans, they were hunters instead of farmers, and they also raised and herded cattle.

Importance of Cattle Cattle were a prized possession because they provided meat, milk, and butter. Cattle were so important that the Aryans even used them as money. Individual wealth was measured by the number of cattle a person owned.

Nomadic Lifestyle Because they herded cattle, Aryans were nomads. After their cattle, sheep, and goats had grazed a field until it was brown, they moved on in search of fresh grass and water. Like many nomads, Aryans were good hunters, warriors, and expert horse riders. They had metal-tipped spears and wooden chariots, which they used to raid nearby villages.

Aryan Migration After 2000 BC, the Aryans began leaving their home territory. They moved in waves, and some groups crossed through the mountain passes in the Himalayas. They entered the Indus River Valley around 1500 BC.

By 1000 BC, the Aryans had conquered the Harappans and controlled northern India. Later, they would move into the Deccan Plateau and conquer everything except the southern tip of India. By the time they arrived in India, they no longer lived as nomads. They became farmers but continued to raise cattle. Eventually, they declared that cattle were sacred and forbid them to be used as food.

Aryan Agricultural Improvements Because Aryans were skilled ironworkers, they improved farming in India. They created an iron plow to help clear India’s many jungles and built canals to irrigate the land. They slowly turned the Ganges River Valley into good farmland.

India’s Crops India’s varied climate supported many types of crops. In the north, farmers grew grains such as wheat, barley, and millet. Rice was grown in the river valleys. In the south, there was a mix of crops, including spices such as pepper, ginger, and cinnamon.

Sanskrit The Aryans also brought a new language to India. As nomads, they had no written language, but in India they developed a written language called Sanskrit. Now the songs, stories, poems, and prayers that the Aryans had known for many centuries could be written down

Rajas The Aryans were organized into tribes. Each tribe was led by a raja, or prince. The rajas ran their own small kingdoms, which often fought among themselves. Rajas fought over cattle, treasure, and women kidnapped from other states. These small kingdoms existed from about 1500 BC to 400 BC.

The Caste System One of the results of the Aryan invasion of India was the development of the caste system. A caste is a social group that someone is born into and cannot change. A caste dictates what job you will have, whom you can marry, and with whom you can socialize.

No one is sure why the caste system was created, but ideas of skin color were probably part of it. The Aryans were a light-skinned people and they thought they were better than the dark- skinned people they had conquered in India. The dark-skinned people outnumbered the Aryans and the caste system was used to keep the groups separated. Is set rules for everyone’s behavior and helped the Aryans stay in control.

Untouchabes There was one group so low that it was not even part of the caste system. Its members were called Pariahs, or Untouchables. They performed work other Indians thougt was too dirty, such as collecting trash, skinning animals, or handling dead bodies. Life was very difficult for Untouchables and most Indians believed that being nearn one was harmful.

Pariahs

Family life In ancient India, the family was the center of life. Grandparents, parents, and children all lived together in an extended family. The eldest man in the family was in charge. Men had more rights than women. Only a man could inherit property unless there were no sons in a family. Only men could go to school or become priests.

Education In high-caste families, a boy had a guru, or teacher, until he went to the city for more education. Young men from these families could marry only when they had finish 12 years of schooling.

Marriage Parents arranged marriages for their children. Even today, parents arrange 90% of marriages in India. Girls often married as young as 13. Divorce was not allowed, but if a couple could not have children, the husband was allowed to have a second wife.

Death Rituals In India, people were cremated or burned when they died. When a man from a high-caste family died, his wife was expected to leap into the flames. This practice was called suttee. If the wife resisted and did not kill herself, it was a great shame. Everyone would avoid the woman from then on.