D AVIDSSON ET AL L ONG - TERM MEDITATORS SELF - INDUCE HIGH - AMPLITUDE GAMMA SYNCHRONY DURING MENTAL PRACTICE Background: Practitioners understand ‘‘meditation,’’ or mental training, to be a process of familiarization with one’s own mental life leading to long-lasting changes in cognition and emotion. Little is known about this process and its impact on the brain.

D AVIDSSON ET AL L ONG - TERM MEDITATORS SELF - INDUCE HIGH - AMPLITUDE GAMMA SYNCHRONY DURING MENTAL PRACTICE Aim: Here we find that long-term Buddhist practitioners self- induce sustained electroencephalographic high-amplitude gamma-band oscillations and phase-synchrony during meditation These electroencephalogram patterns differ from those of controls, in particular over lateral frontoparietal electrodes. Neural synchrony thus appears as a promising mechanism for the study of brain processes underlining mental training.

D AVIDSSON ET AL L ONG - TERM MEDITATORS SELF - INDUCE HIGH - AMPLITUDE GAMMA SYNCHRONY DURING MENTAL PRACTICE. Hypothesis: These data suggest that mental training involves temporal integrative mechanisms and may induce short-term and long- term neural changes.

D AVIDSSON ET AL L ONG - TERM MEDITATORS SELF - INDUCE HIGH - AMPLITUDE GAMMA SYNCHRONY DURING MENTAL PRACTICE Method: The subjects were eight long-term Buddhist practitioners (mean age, years) and 10 healthy student volunteers (mean age, years). Buddhist practitioners underwent mental training in the same Tibetan Nyingmapa and Kagyupa traditions for 10,000 to 50,000 h over time periods ranging from 15 to 40 years. The length of their training was estimated based on their daily practice and the time they spent in meditative retreats. Eight hours of sitting meditation was counted per day of retreat. Control subjects had no previous meditative experience but had declared an interest in meditation. Controls underwent meditative training for 1 week before the collection of the data.

D AVIDSSON ET AL L ONG - TERM MEDITATORS SELF - INDUCE HIGH - AMPLITUDE GAMMA SYNCHRONY DURING MENTAL PRACTICE Procedure: The Gamma activity were measured through EEG recordings and the Gamma acivity were measured before and after the meditation.

D AVIDSSON ET AL L ONG - TERM MEDITATORS SELF - INDUCE HIGH - AMPLITUDE GAMMA SYNCHRONY DURING MENTAL PRACTICE Result: During meditation, we found high-amplitude gamma oscillations in the EEGs of long-time practitioners (subjects S1–S8) that were not present in the initial baseline (before meditation). Figures provides a representative example of the raw EEG signal (25–42 Hz) for subject S4. An essential aspect of these gamma oscillations is that their amplitude monotonically increased over the time of the practice. See next figure.

D AVIDSSON ET AL L ONG - TERM MEDITATORS SELF - INDUCE HIGH - AMPLITUDE GAMMA SYNCHRONY DURING MENTAL PRACTICE Result: Example on how meditation matters for the cognitive abilities. In long-term mediators.

D AVIDSSON ET AL L ONG - TERM MEDITATORS SELF - INDUCE HIGH - AMPLITUDE GAMMA SYNCHRONY DURING MENTAL PRACTICE Results: The difference between meditation before – ongoing and after showed a difference in state of mind (long term mediators), C, D, E. These data suggest that the two groups (mediators, controls) had different electrophysiological spectral profiles in the baseline, which are characterized by a higher ratio of gamma- band oscillatory rhythm to slow oscillatory rhythms for the long- term practitioners than for the controls. This group difference is enhanced during the meditative practice and continues into the postmeditative resting blocks.

D AVIDSSON ET AL L ONG - TERM MEDITATORS SELF - INDUCE HIGH - AMPLITUDE GAMMA SYNCHRONY DURING MENTAL PRACTICE Discussion: They found robust gamma-band oscillation during the generation of the compassion meditative state. It is likely based on descriptions of various meditation practices and mental strategies that are reported by practitioners that there will be differences in brain function associated with different types of meditation. Our practitioners and control subjects differed in many respects, including age, culture of origin, and first language, and they likely differed in many more respects, including diet and sleep…

D AVIDSSON ET AL L ONG - TERM MEDITATORS SELF - INDUCE HIGH - AMPLITUDE GAMMA SYNCHRONY DURING MENTAL PRACTICE Discussion: …they examined whether age was an important factor in producing the baseline differences they observed by comparing the three youngest practitioners with the controls and found that the mean age difference between groups is unlikely the sole factor responsible for this baseline difference. It remains for future studies to show that these EEG signatures are caused by long-term training itself and not by individual differences before the training, although the positive correlation they found with hours of training and other randomized controlled trials suggest that these are training-related effects

D AVIDSSON ET AL L ONG - TERM MEDITATORS SELF - INDUCE HIGH - AMPLITUDE GAMMA SYNCHRONY DURING MENTAL PRACTICE Limitations: Future research is required to characterize the nature of the differences among types of meditation. The resulting data differ from several studies that found an increase in slow alpha or theta rhythms during meditation. The comparison is limited by the fact that these studies typically did not analyze fast rhythms. More importantly, these studies mainly investigated different forms of voluntary concentrative meditation on an object (such as a meditation on a mantra or the breath). Your own ideas…

L AZAR ET AL M EDITATION EXPERIENCE IS ASSOCIATED WITH INCREASED CORTICAL THICKNESS Background: Reports have shown that regular meditation practice can results in changes in mental state. Even changes after the meditation affects the mental state.

L AZAR ET AL M EDITATION EXPERIENCE IS ASSOCIATED WITH INCREASED CORTICAL THICKNESS Aim: Their idea is that the brain (not just gamma-waves) might change in a visible and measurable way.

L AZAR ET AL M EDITATION EXPERIENCE IS ASSOCIATED WITH INCREASED CORTICAL THICKNESS Hypothesis: Regular meditation practice should result in significant changes in the cortical structure regions that are normally engaged in mental exercises. To test the hypothesis they were using MRI scanner to visualize differences in the thickness of cerebral cortex of experienced Buddhists.

L AZAR ET AL M EDITATION EXPERIENCE IS ASSOCIATED WITH INCREASED CORTICAL THICKNESS Participants and procedures: 20 participants with training in insight meditation were recruited from the local communities. The participants were locals and not monks. They were typical western meditators who incorporated meditation into their daily lives. 2 were full time meditators, 3 were yoga instructors, the rest meditated in average 40 min each day. On average the meditators had 9,1 +- 7,1 years of meditation. 15 control participants were recruited with no experience at all of meditation. Male: 65% meditators and 67% controls. Age average: 38,2. meditators 36,8 controls. 100% Caucasian.

L AZAR ET AL M EDITATION EXPERIENCE IS ASSOCIATED WITH INCREASED CORTICAL THICKNESS Participants and procedures: All partcipants were physically and psychologically healthy. A description of how they estimated the cortical thickness:

L AZAR ET AL M EDITATION EXPERIENCE IS ASSOCIATED WITH INCREASED CORTICAL THICKNESS Results: The cortical thickness in specific regions were thicker in meditators than in controls (e.g the Brodmann area). Though was the cortical thickness around the entire cortex not thicker than in controls. Mediators are the circles and the controls the squares.

L AZAR ET AL M EDITATION EXPERIENCE IS ASSOCIATED WITH INCREASED CORTICAL THICKNESS Results: There was an observed decrease in age relation within the control group but not in the meditation group.

L AZAR ET AL M EDITATION EXPERIENCE IS ASSOCIATED WITH INCREASED CORTICAL THICKNESS Discussion: The findings indicate that a regular practice of meditation is correlated with an increasing thickness of cortical regions. Specifically related to visual, somatosensory and auditory. Meditation may also slow age related thinning of frontal cortex. This may also lead to an increased neural plasticity in the mentioned regions. Though many other factors may lead to a thickening frontal cortex: age, sex, genetics, neuropathology and psychopathology.

L AZAR ET AL M EDITATION EXPERIENCE IS ASSOCIATED WITH INCREASED CORTICAL THICKNESS Limitations/Questions: There might be several confounding variables here: Can the thickening have to do with experience in life? Does the practicing meditators use the same techniques and by that affecting the same areas in the brain? And does the older meditators have better techniques that have developed their frontal cortex in a better way? How about the participants? Compare with Davidson.