Introduction to Approaches in Psychology Cognitive Psychology Maggie Gale Office: Bungalow

Overview of Session By the end of this session together with independent study you should: Understand what cognitive psychology is Understand its basic approach Have an understanding of –2 models of memory –Research into problem solving

Where does cognitive psychology come from? Developed over past 50 years Out of behaviourism –observable, measurable events Post world war II –new concepts - skill & attention Influence from other domains - Information Theory –People are processors of information & meaning –cognitive processes rely on feedback and control

Information Processing The basic idea.. STIMULUS ATTENTION PERCEPTION THOUGHT PROCESSES DECISION RESPONSE OR ACTION 2 Assumptions made....

One…….. PARIS IN THE THE SPRING PARIS IN THE THE SPRING Bottom-up Processing or Top-down Processing?

Two………Serial Processing Serial processing: –one process is completed before the next starts Parallel processing: –some or all of the processes occur at the same time Some processes can occur together but others have to wait for the completion of other processes Depends on: –the type of problem –how good someone is at the task

The Computer Analogy Good way to think about the mind? Mind likened to programmes Mind now set of procedures/processes for operating on symbols

Influence of Behaviourism on Cognitive Psychology Cognitive psychology use experiments to collect behavioural data Differ from behaviourist because they make inferences from the behavioural data about internal mental processes.

Experiment chair apple tree cat orange table dog sofa window banana hamster fern desk peach sofa window chair table desk tree fern banana apple peach orange cat hamster dog People remember more words from different categories when they’re in ordered lists than when they’re jumbled up

Conclusions Behaviourist concludes: ordered verbal material produces better subsequent memory than unorganised material. Cognitive psychologist concludes: human memory system is internally organised and the full power of the system can be exploited when its internal structure is supported by the organisation of the material to be remembered.

So……….What is Cognitive Psychology? Interested in structures and functions of mind Assumption - mind is a set of processes that rely on the brain Assumption - mental processes are linked with observable behaviour Takes a scientific perspective Perform controlled experiments testing theories about inner mental processes. Observe the effects of these processes on outward measurable behaviour Mind can not be directly studied - but observable effects can be Cognitive Psychology = the study of mental processes via measurable behaviour

Contemporary Cognitive Psychology Growing interest in constructing models and simulations of theories –Mimicked using artificial information-processing devices e.g. computers –Cognitive Science - uses experimental techniques of cognitive psychology and computer modeling methods of artificial intelligence to explore mind Cognitive Neuropsychology - the study of brain- damaged patients

Models of Memory The Modal Model (Atkinson and Shiffrin,1968) INPUT SHORT- TERM MEMORY SENSORY REGISTERS LONG-TERM MEMORY Rehearsal Visual & Auditory Retrieval

Capacity and Duration of each Store Sensory store: –Info lasts for a very short period of time (1-2 seconds) –Information not selected decays rapidly Short-term store: –Has limited capacity; 7 items +/-2 (Miller, 1956) –Able to store information for approx 20 seconds –Unrehearsed items are forgotten Long-term store: –Unlimited capacity & contains very diverse information Key contribution of model: –there are separate kinds of memory store –the stores differ in their storage capacity & in the way information is forgotten

Evaluation of model Assumption that the longer information stays in STS the more likely it is to enter the LTS –Morton (1967) Participants asked to reproduce the pattern of numbers on British telephones Out of 50 nobody produced any correct numbers Assumption that both STS & LTS were unitary –Later found this not to be true –Tulving (1972) Episodic = memory for autobiographical events Semantic memory = memory for organised knowledge we possess about language, the world

Working Memory Model Baddeley & Hitch (1974) Response to some criticisms of STM STM redefined as Working Memory –Active system used to manipulate information, either from environment or LTM 3 components –Central executive –Phonological loop –Visiospatial scratchpad

Working Memory Model Central Executive Visio-spatial Scratchpad Phonological loop Baddeley and Hitch, (1974)

Problem Solving ‘Consists of finding a method of getting from where you are to where you want to be’ (Evans 1995, p 61) Everyday activity Distinction made between –well-defined What is the best way to get to University? –ill-defined problems How can I get a good grade on this assignment?

Spatial Metaphor Problem solving in terms of space –Find path to solution –Hitting a dead end Newell and Simon (1972) use spatial analogy for problem solving activity –Moving from initial state to goal state via problem space Problem solving can be via –Algorithm –Heuristics

Algorithmic Problem Solving All possible routes to solutions explored Guarantees answer will be found Very time consuming, can cause ‘cognitive overload’

Means End Analysis Heuristic method –Identify difference between current state and goal state; If none problem solved, otherwise proceed –Select action (operator) to reduce difference –If operator can be applied do so, if not develop new sub goal at which operator can be applied. –MEA applied to new sub-goal until operator applied or attempt to use it abandoned. –Cycle through stages until problem solved.

Barriers to Problem Solving Functional Fixedness –Participants given several objects including box of nails, candle, some matches –Attach candle to wall without dripping onto table Mental Set –People learn way of doing something and continue to apply strategy when no longer appropriate –Water jug problem

Insight Problem Solving Occurs when experience ‘aha’ moment Usually after impasse E.g. Missionaries and cannibals problem logica/logica.swf

Lecture summary From today’s lecture you should –Know what cognitive psychology is –Be able to describe two models of memory –Be able to describe some of the problems used in problem solving research and one model of problem solving