 The “Oxbridge” Model:  Refers to the system of higher education put into place by Oxford and Cambridge  Both were English universities that developed a formal system of endowed colleges that combined living and learning within quadrangles  The college was an isolated, “total” institution whose responsibilities included guiding both the social and academic dimensions of undergraduate life  It was this model that influenced college builders in the New World starting in the 17 th century

 The American colonists built colleges because they and wished to transplant and perfect the English idea of education as a civilizing experience that ensured a progression of responsible leaders for both church and state.  The early colleges were designed to train the clergy and wanted to educate children in the faith (mostly Congregational, English Anglican or Puritanism)  The colleges were considered a ministry vital to the community

 The earliest students were  Sons of wealthy land owners planning for the ministry  Had to read/write Latin and Greek, translate the classics  Were white men generally younger than age 21  Were not particularly focused on the credential of a degree  Many did not attend for more than a few years

 A majority of institutions had ties to religious denonimations  Most college presidents were men of the cloth (i.e., ministers)  There was some tension between faculty and students, with complaints by students about food, lodging, and the curriculum  The policy of in loco parentis put the faculty in the role of parents in supervising student conduct and moral development

 1633 John Elliot proposed the establishment of what was to become Harvard College  In 1636, New College was founded in the Massachusetts Bay Colony  In 1638, John Harvard, a minister, on his death donated personal land, half his estate, and an a library of 400 books. In response, the New College was renamed Harvard College for him.

 The College of William and Mary (1693). William and Mary were two cousins who ruled England from They granted a royal charter for the 2 nd colonial college  Structured after Queen’s College in Oxford  Had philosophy and divinity school, as well as a school for native Americans  Some students paid tuition, some were supported with financial aid from tobacco taxes

 Collegiate School in CT became Yale in 1701  College of NJ at Princeton, charted by King George III in 1746 – broke from the strongly religious mold, as they admitted persons of nay denomination (as long as they were prosperous white males)  College of Philadelphia, first non-church school, founded by B. Franklin for a “broad practical kind of education”, changed to the U. Pennsylvania in 1755  1754, Columbia founded

 1764 Rhode Island College, founded as Baptist, changed its name to Brown after a primary donor  1766 Queens College, later Rutgers  1769 last colonial college, Dartmouth  Much social and political turmoil, as England tightened control  1776, Colonies declared independence  Colleges began to move away from the church

 More colleges were formed in the other colonies, both north and south.  After 1800, private colleges began to have financial difficulties.  Students saw higher education as a means to worldly advancement than spiritual salvation  Attendance tended to ratify social standing rather than provide social mobility

 1819 University of Virginia, the first state- controlled university, founded by T. Jefferson to “diffuse and advance” secular knowledge  In the south, the Civil War led to a depletion of students and faculty and physical damage to many colleges  Provided opportunities to initiate new higher education programs

 Saw the introduction of extracurricular activities, a shift in socioeconomic status of students, introduction of women and African Americans into higher education  1862 – Under President Lincoln, the 1st Morrill Land Grant Act provided:  Federal support in every state for agriculture, home economics & mechanical arts and other practical occupation, helping to shift curriculum from classical to more applied studies  public lands - 30,000 acres for each senator & rep.  Funds must be put in endowment at 5% interest  if not used in 5 yrs, returned to federal govt.  nd Morrill Land Grant Act provided regular (ongoing) federal appropriations

 A wider range of socioeconomic status for students - “paupers to scholars”  First-generation college students came from farming families, many older than usual years  Led to formation of charitable trusts and scholarships to help colleges provide financial support to these students  Women became formal participants by the mid-nineteenth century, with “female academies” created, including home economics, science, mathematics, foreign languages and composition.  By 1860’s and 1870’s, many of these female academies or seminaries became degree-granting colleges, but there were no co- educational colleges at this time.  Between 1985 and 1910, provisions were made for African Americans to pursue higher education  Land grant act of 1890 provided funding for black colleges with studies in agriculture and mechanical arts, with additional funding from churches, Northern philanthropic groups, and states

 Between 1870 and 1910, there was a dramatic “university movement” that involved:  Annexation of professional schools such as medicine, law, business, theology, pharmacy and engineering  Creation of extracurricular activities – athletics, fraternities and sororities, campus newspapers and other clubs  Beginning of organized alumni associations  First junior college, Joliet College, was founded as the first 2-year college

 1861 – Yale University awarded the 1 st Ph.D., but a formal program was not established until 1872  1872 Harvard began the Graduate School of Arts & Sciences  Johns Hopkins set out to be a premier graduate school based on a German model, hiring foremost scholars, only top-notch students accepted  U. Chicago followed the Hopkins model  The focus was primarily, as in the German model, on research, not teaching

 Beginning in the 1920’s, institutions enjoyed the luxury of choice  There began to be more applicants than spots  This led to the creation and refinement of the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT)  Enrollment rose during the Great Depression due to lack of employment opportunities  Community colleges expanded and began to focus on job-training to address high rates of unemployment, not simply liberal arts subjects  Diversity was still an issue and discrimination existed for minority groups and women

 Saw an academic revolution in which colleges and universities acquired unprecedented influence in American society  At the end of WWII, the GI Bill gave federal scholarships for post-secondary education for returning war veterans and enrollment boomed  It set precedent for making portable government student aid an entitlement and provided a tool to make American Higher education more diverse  The higher education system was not prepared to absorb all these new students.

 In 1947, Truman authorized a report to expand access and affordability to higher education, to make free higher education  The report proposed sweeping changes in higher education:  the abandonment of European concepts of education and the development of a curriculum attuned to the needs of a democracy;  the doubling of college attendance by 1960;  the integration of vocational and liberal education;  the extension of free public education through the first 2 years of college for all youth who can profit from such education;  the elimination of racial and religious discrimination;  revision of the goals of graduate and professional school education to make them effective in training well-rounded persons as well as research specialists and technicians;  and the expansion of Federal support for higher education through scholarships, fellowships, and general aid.  Also proposed were: establishment of a national network of community colleges; the expansion of adult education programs; and the distribution of Federal aid to education in such a manner that the poorer States can bring their educational systems closer to the quality of the wealthier States.

 By the 1950’s, the great growth of the 1940’s subsided and the situation was stagnant  Some top schools set quotas for Jews and other “outsider” groups  In the 1960’s, there was again a huge increase in the number of colleges and students  The rise of the “Multiversity” consisting of a flagship campus with advanced degree programs and tens of thousands of students  Budgets relied on “soft money”, research funding by the Federal government and private sources

 Students began to complain about large lecture classes, impersonal administration, crowded student housing, and psychological distance between faculty and students  Growing student concern over political and social events (the Vietnam war, the draft, the Civil Rights movement)  By 1970, media depicted the American campus as a battleground in a generational war between college students and established institutions of society (Kent State, campus occupations, protests)

 Introduction of more financial aid opportunities by the Federal Government  Entitlements for student aid  Basic Educational Opportunity grants (BEOG)  Supplement Educational Opportunity Grants (later known as Pell grants)  Enrollment declines for traditional male students were answered by recruitment of older students, women and minorities  Led to continued rise in diversity including women, African Americans, Hispanics, Native Americans and Asians

 End of Post WWII expansion and growth  Facing significant financial hardships  Enrollment  Downsizing, rightsizing, fiscal constraints, faculty productivity, new buzzwords  Research universities criticized for esoteric research, lack of attention to teaching and the undergraduate curriculum

 Between 1990 and 2000, most colleges and universities were prosperous and had high enrollments  Public universities began to be severely stressed by consistent reductions in state funding  Tuitions soared at private colleges  Concerns about college costs began to escalate as costs began to exceed inflation and student debt increased markedly  Growth in student services and administration accounted for a high proportion of the increased costs  Enrollment of women increased as enrollment by men began to fall off

 Renewed emphasis on teaching and learning process  More diverse student body  Wider range of reasons for enrolling in college  Continued growth in the Community College sector as more students with less high school preparation attempt college  Concern about remaking higher education as a means of improving outcomes and controlling costs