Social Identity : A person’s definition of who he or she is; includes personal attributes (self-concept) along with membership in various groups (aspects shared with others) Self-Concept : One’s self-identity, a schema consisting of an organized collection of beliefs and feelings about oneself.

One’s Identity = one’s name + self-concept + aspects shared with others Categories  Gender and relationships  vocation  Political or ideological affiliation  Religious  Attributes that some people dislike

1. The Self 1) Self-Concept a. The Cognitive Effects of a Person’s Self- Schema - Self-schema: is the sum of everything a person knows and can imagine about herself or himself. - Self: is the center of each person’s social world.

- Self-Reference Effect : The greater effects of cognitive processing of information relevant to the self compared to processing of other types of information. - self-relevant information is most likely to catch your attention, to be retained in memory, and to be recalled easily. - psychologists have pursued the question of “how” information relevant to the self is processed more efficiently.

* Self-relevant information could be facilitated in one of two ways. 1. Elaborative Processing 2. Categorical Processing

 The self-reference effect Categorical Processing Self-relevant material is well organized in memory & readily placed in existing categories. Stimulus Material Any information that is in some way relevant to oneself. The Self-reference effect Information related to the self is processed very easily and is therefore recalled more easily than other types of information. Elaborative Processing Self-relevant material is processed “deeply” in that it is related to other information already presented in Memory

b. Sexual Self-schema : The cognitive representations of the sexual aspects of oneself that originate in past experience, are manifested in current experience, influence the processing of sexual information, and guide sexual behavior.

c. One self-concept or Many? People ordinary think: the self were stable and unchanging entity. -10 yearspresent+10years All of the time, I’m different.  In effect, you have a self-concept, but you are also aware of other possible selves, as well.  Working self-concept a. new experience b. new feedback c. new self-relevant information

2) Self-Esteem: Evaluating Oneself : The self-evaluation made by each individual; one’s attitude toward oneself along a positive- negative dimension.  based in part on the opinions of others.  based in part on how we perceive specific experience. * Social comparisons are major determinant of how we evaluate ourselves. (Brown, 1992)

- Contrast effect - Assimilation effect - Why do we engage in self-evaluation? 3 motives for evaluating oneself 1) Self-assessment 2) Self-enhancement 3) Self-verification * Self-esteem can be raised easily.

2. Additional Aspects of Self-Functioning: Focusing, monitoring, and efficacy The Self Self-concept Self-esteem Self-Focusing Self-Monitoring Self-Efficacy

1) Self-Focusing: Attending to oneself or to the environment : The act of directing attention inward toward oneself as opposed to outward the environment. - Self-Focusing=memory+cognition - Self-Focusing=recall past event+ processing present information

Self-focusing is easily induced by  situational instructions  environmental cues Self-focusing improves Self-insight!! Self-focusing is more likely in familiar > unfamiliar comfortable > uncomfortable

2) Self-Monitoring : Regulation of one’s behavior on the basis of external situations and the reaction of others (high self-monitoring) or on the basis of internal factors such as beliefs, attitudes, and values (low self-monitoring).

Positive Affective Interrelationships Positive external event Positive Positive Mood self-information Self-focusing Optimistic expectancies

 Negative Affective Interrelationships Negative external event NegativeNegative mood Self-information self-focusing Pessimistic expectancies

analyze situation byHigh self-monitors referring to public self Evaluate self in this situation by comparing it to social standards Social situation Behave so as to bring publics self into line with the standard of the situation

Social situationBehave so as bring situation into line with the self Evaluate self in this situation by comparing it to personal standards Analyze situation by referring to private self Low Self-Monitors

Low self-monitors : self-centered, closed-minded, insensitive to the opinions of others, lacking is social skills High self-monitors : sensitive to the feelings of others, open-minded, socially skillful

3) Self-Efficacy : “I think I can, I think I can…” : A person’s evaluation of his or her ability or competency to perform a task, reach a goal, or overcome an obstacle. a. Self-Efficacy and Performance b. Self-Efficacy in Social Situation c. Increasing a Person’s Feeling of Self- Efficacy

2. Gender: Maleness and Femaleness As a Crucial Aspects of Identity Sex: Maleness and femaleness as determined by genetic factors present at conception that result in anatomical and physiological differences. Gender: The attributes, behaviors, personality characteristics, and expectancies associated with a person’s biological sex in a given culture; may be based on biology, my be learned, or may represent a combination of biological and cultural determinants.

1) Gender Identity and Stereotypes based on Gender a. Gender Identity : It is, we label ourselves as male or female. b. Gender consistency : the concept that gender is basic, enduring attribute of each individual, a concept ordinarily acquired by children between the age of four and seven. c. As childhood progresses, sex typing occurs when children learn in detail the stereotypes associated with maleness or femaleness in their culture.

 The Developmental Aspects of Gender 1) Conception : Genes on the sex chromosomes determine whether a biological male or a biological female has been conceived. 2) Age 2-4 : Child learns social categories of male ad female and labels self and others as boy or girl, though with a somewhat limited understanding of precisely what this means.

3) Later childhood :Sex identity becomes very clear, and gender identity (I’m a male, or I’m a female) develops as part of the self- concept. Child also is learning culturally designated “appropriate” and “inappropriate” 4) Adolescence and adulthood : Gender identity is well established and gender stereotypes are well understood.

 Bem Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI) : Bem’s measure of the extent to which an individual’s self-description is characterized by traditional masculinity, traditional femininity, a mixture of the two (androgyny), or neither (undifferentiated).

 Beckwith’s differentiation (1994) Sex: biological maleness or femaleness Gender: social categorization as male and female : one’s self-perception as male or female Gender-stereotype: self-reported masculinity or femininity as measured by the BSRI. 2) Gender-Role Behavior and the reactions of Others to Gender-Role Behavior. a. The Effects of Gender Roles on Behavior at home and in the wrokplace.

- Gender roles (within at home) Men: often take out the garbage, repair, do the yard work Women: clean the house, cook, engage in child care - Gender roles (within workplace) Men: similar with women Women: the primary reason for their selection, they evaluate their performance as being less adequate than women told that the assignment was based on merit.

- Gender also affects expectancies Men: Stressed extrinsic motives for choosing a job. Women: were more concerned about whether the jobs would be personally satisfying, thus stressing intrinsic motives for job selection. b. Why Do Traditional Gender Roles Remain Powerful? - In the Jewish Talmud - In the New Testament - In Children’s Books

3) When Differences Are Found between Males and Females Are they based on Sex, Gender, or both? a. Differences are based on biological, learning, or some combination of the two? b. Social and biological factors each play a role, but that socialization is the more important determinant. (Martin & Parker, 1995) c. Interpersonal Behavior - Many investigators assume that these male-female differences are based on learned expectancies associated with gender roles.

- Women have better social skills than men because they have to. - Biochemical differences Men: Testosterone-strongly affects the tendency to dominate and control others. Women: Estrogen- tend to concentrate on physical consequences such as skin tone, vaginal lubrication, the risk of cancer. - Self-Perception : Self-imagination