AUDIENCE

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Segments of a consumer market The target audience is viewed as a segment of a consumer market. Advertisers use the following criteria: The target audience is viewed as a segment of a consumer market. Advertisers use the following criteria: DEMOGRAPHICS – the consumer is categorised in terms of concrete variables such as age, class, gender, geographical area etc. PSYCHOGRAPHICS – the consumer is categorised in terms of his/her needs and desires.

The audience as a market for media products  Genres, product and station – for example, a new product may be described as appealing to Channel 4 viewers / Classic fm listeners.  Niche and mass audiences – categorised in terms of size/numbers  Narrowcasting – stations that appeal to small numbers with specific interests  Scheduling – targeting different groups at different times of the day

Scheduling  ‘Hammocking’ – new programmes are ‘hammocked’ when they are placed between two successful programmes.  ‘Inheritance’ – a new programme is placed after a successful programme and it is hoped that the audience will be ‘inherited’.  ‘Pre-echo’ – the practice of placing a programme before an established programme to catch people switching on early.

Broadcast Flow Scheduling a seamless flow of programmes in the attempt to keep the audience. Advertisements – reflect programme being broadcast Trails – of programmes being shown later in the day Presenters and idents – give people a feeling of being addressed directly + brand loyalty Juxtaposition – fitting programmes together carefully.

The audience as commodity The audience becomes a commodity which is sold to the advertisers.

The audience response to the media  The effect the media have on the audience  The ways audiences use the media  The ways audiences read media texts

Audience Theory Many attempts have been made - and continue to be made - at defining the ways in which a text and its receptors relate to one another. We shall look at four basic types of interpretation.

Audience Theory 1. the Effects model (a) This is sometimes known as the “hypodermic needle” model. The intended message is directly received and wholly accepted by the receptor. The Frankfurt School (established 1923): film and radio are used by those in power for propaganda purposes. Audiences accept media messages passively, like drugs. [Theodor W. Adorno] Criticised: German fascism, 1920s/30s/40s

Audience Theory 1. the Effects model (b) (The “hypodermic needle” model) The intended message is directly received and wholly accepted by the receptor. Behaviourists (1950s onwards): particularly studied effects of TV on audiences. Were alarmed by connections they saw between violent acts in TV shows and violence committed by members of TV audiences. Drew on earlier work by Ivan Pavlov etc. Prominent behaviourist: B.F. Skinner Albert Bandura and the Bobo Doll

Inoculation Model - Passive However, Inoculation theory suggests that long term exposure to repeated media messages makes audiences immune to them. Can you think of any examples to support this theory? Audience Theory

Narcotising Dysfunction  The inoculation model suggests that the mass media render the audience incapable of action. Audience Theory

2. the Two-step flow model This is a modern version of the “effects/hypodermic needle” model. People with most access to the media, and highest media literacy, explain and diffuse the content to others. These people are “opinion leaders” who mould and guide the responses of the remainder of the audience – who are largely passive receptors - though to a lesser extent than in the effects model. Also known as: the limited effects paradigm Prominent theorists: Katz & Lazarsfeld; Berelson

Two-step flow model – Semi-active The audience will ‘interpret’ the media message (long term). The audience are ‘interacting and responsive individuals’ as opposed to ‘socially isolated, passive atoms’. (James Watson and Anne Hill, A Dictionary of Communication and Media Studies Fourth Edition, 1997, Edward Arnold.) Audience Theory

3. the Uses and Gratifications model (a) People are not helpless victims of mass media, but use media to gain specific gratifications (satisfy needs). Started in USA (1940s onwards): emphasises use of “choice”; sees audience as “consumers”, and “consuming” the media as an “activity”. Prominent theorists: Blumier & Katz; McQuail Blumier & Katz (1974): “Media usage … provides gratifications related to the satisfaction of social and psychological needs.”

Audience Theory 3. the Uses and Gratifications model (b) Blumier & Katz identified four main uses: Surveillance – our need to know what is going on in the world: security. Personal relationships – our need to interact with other people. We create virtual relationships with characters, individuals, etc. in media texts. Personal identity – we define our identity and sense of self, partly by making judgements about film & TV characters and personalities [“value reinforcement”]. Diversion – our need to escape, be entertained and relax.

Uses and Gratifications Model - Active  INFORMATION/SURVEILLANCE – the need to be informed  PERSONAL IDENTITY – the need to reinforce a view of personal identity by comparing our roles and values with similar roles/values represented in the media.  PERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS /INTEGRATION AND SOCIAL INTERACTION – the need to have companionship and interaction.  DIVERSION / ENTERTAINMENT – the need for fantasy and escapism. Think of examples for each use. Think of examples for each use. Audience Theory

Media Involvement  Primary –completely consumed by watching or reading a media text  Secondary – may be occupied in another task but half listening.  Tertiary – the medium is just a background.

Audience Theory 4. Reception theory The “meaning” of a text is not inherent within the text itself. Instead, members of the audience will elicit meaning based on individual cultural background and life experiences. The relationship is between text and receptor: no meaning is contained within the text until it is “decoded” by the receptor. Each decoded reading might be different. Prominent theorists: Roland Barthes (the “death of the author”, 1960s/70s) Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies) Stuart Hall (Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies)

The Encoding / Decoding Model Stuart Hall, Culture, Media, Language, Hutchinson, 1980 David Morley, The Nationwide Audience, BFI, 1980 Audiences vary in response to media messages. They are influenced by their: gender/age/social position/occupation etc. Media texts are ENCODED to present a PREFERRED READING.

3 Kinds of Audience Response  Dominant – the audience agree with the dominant values expressed within the preferred reading of the text.  Negotiated – the audience generally agree but they may disagree with certain aspects according to their social background.  Oppositional – the audience disagree with the dominant values expressed with the preferred reading. (Aberrant – the reader mistakenly or wilfully decodes the text in opposition.)

Audience Theories 1. The Effects model. 2. The Two-Step Flow model. 3. The Uses and Gratifications model. 4. Reception theory.