Chapter 7 Instructional Strategies for Adapted Physical Education Douglas H. Collier Chapter 7 Instructional Strategies for Adapted Physical Education

Philosophical Approaches to Adapted Physical Education and Sport Humanistic philosophy Important figures Abraham Maslow (1908–1970) Carl Rogers (1902–1987) Applied behavior analysis Important figure B.F Skinner (1904–1990)

Maslow’s Theory of Self-Actualization

Interaction of Performer, Environment, and Task

Motor Skill Tenets Growth and maturation influence the ability to learn a movement skill. 2. Mechanical and physiological principles of movement strongly influence the best way to perform a given skill. 3. Reinforcement and repetition are important when learning a new skill. (continued)

Motor Skill Tenets (continued) 4. Emotion affects the process of learning motor skills. 5. Success at a given task leads to improved learning. 6. Learning takes place more quickly when practice sessions are separated by adequate rest periods. 7. Motor skills that are overlearned are retained longer.

Accountable and Accessible Instruction In order to establish that students are learning meaningful content, carefully designed assessments must be administered regularly (Friend, 2008). Given the range of learners with unique needs taking part in physical education, practitioners must develop the skills to a) identify appropriate assessments and b) make the necessary modifications to the assessments in order to obtain meaningful information.

Universal Design for Learning Universal design for learning (or universal design for instruction) suggests that instruction should be designed with all learners in mind from the very beginning. The principles of universal design apply to all facets of education, including architectural considerations, materials and implements, instructional approaches, and assessment. All learners are equally valued and must be considered from the beginning.

Differentiated Instruction Learners often have unique attributes that must be taken into account when teaching. For optimal learning to take place, we must differentiate our approach based on what skills and shortcomings an individual learner presents. Modifications are used only as needed.

Evidence-Based Practices Evidence-based practice refers to: using data that have been carefully gathered by the practitioner in order to decide on what to teach and how that teaching should take place. using programs and strategies that have demonstrated effectiveness.

Curricular Modifications Leading to Meaningful Integration Same curriculum Multilevel curriculum Modified curriculum Different curriculum

Curricular Approaches Top-down An emphasis on the teaching of specific, functional, age-appropriate leisure skills (continued)

Curricular Approaches (continued) Bottom-up   A developmentally focused curriculum with an emphasis on making sure that the fundamental movement “building blocks” are in place allowing for participation in chronologically and developmentally appropriate movement activities

Categories of Activity Modifications Equipment Rules Environment Instruction

Effective Teachers Adapt Their Instruction To the nature of the content being taught To their personal skills and preferences To the characteristics of the learners To the teaching context

Teaching Styles Reproductive styles Command Practice/task Reciprocal Self-check Inclusion/invitation (continued)

Teaching Styles (continued) Productive styles Guided discovery Convergent discovery Divergent discovery (after Mosston and Ashworth, 2002)

Teaching Formats One-to-one instruction Small-group instruction Large-group instruction Mixed-group instruction Peer teaching or tutoring (continued)

Teaching Formats (continued) Self-paced independent work Cooperative learning Reverse mainstreaming Teaching stations

Components of a Discrete Trial Instruction Optional prompt Learner’s response Consequences Intertrial interval

Response Prompting Continuum Physical prompts Complete physical manipulation Manipulative prompting Minimal guidance Visual prompts Complete skill demonstration Partial skill demonstration Gestural prompting (continued)

Response Prompting Continuum (continued) Verbal prompts Skill cue Action command Action cue No prompts Initiation with environmental goal Imitative initiation Initiation in free play (after Watkinson and Wall, 1982)

Guidelines for Effective Prompting Use prompts that are meaningful to the student. Consider the learner’s characteristics. Be careful not to underprompt. Be careful not to overprompt. Focus the learner’s attention on the task. (continued)

Guidelines for Effective Prompting (continued) Make sure that the prompt is effective. Pretest and assess carefully; students might need less assistance than you assume. Fade physical proximity. Consider coupling the appropriate verbal prompt with other prompts used. Fade verbal prompts.

Traditional Task Analysis Traditional task analysis breaks a skill down into its tasks or related subtasks. These tasks are arranged into a sequence from easy to difficult with short-term outcomes being determined for each task and subtask. (continued)

Traditional Task Analysis (continued) An effective approach to traditional task analysis involves separating the main task into several related subtasks. Each subtask has components arranged from the easiest to the most difficult. Once all the components of a given subtask have been mastered, the learner then moves to the first component of the next subtask. (continued)

Traditional Task Analysis (continued) Although frequently utilized, traditional task analysis has been criticized for the following reasons. Though generally describing the components of the task accurately, traditional task analysis does not often take into account the capabilities of the learner. The traditional approach to task analysis is primarily teacher directed, whereby the teacher specifies how a given skill is to be performed.

Developmental Task Analysis Developmental task analysis outlines all of the task and environmental factors that influence the performance of students in the general movement categories (e.g., throw, strike, jump). Under each of these factors, modifications are given from the simplest to the most difficult.

Ecological Task Analysis Ecological task analysis (ETA) takes the consideration of multiple, interacting factors (as in developmental task analysis) one step further by carefully examining the learner. “Motor skills, the movement form, and performance outcomes are results of the dynamic interaction (constraints) between the task goal and conditions, the environmental situation, and the capabilities and intent of the performer.” (Balan & Davis, 1993, p. 26)

A General Task Analysis (Throwing)

Prescriptive Planning and Instructional Models Project ACTIVE Incorporates a test-assess-prescribe- evaluate planning process Includes normative- as well as criterion- referenced tests in the areas of motor ability, nutrition, physical fitness, and posture. (continued)

Prescriptive Planning and Instructional Models (continued) Data-Based Gymnasium A prescriptive instructional model that provides information on effectively managing the learning environment of individuals with severe disabilities Unique in its specific delineation of applied behavior analysis techniques as a means of accomplishing meaningful learning objectives (continued)

Prescriptive Planning and Instructional Models (continued) MOVE A top-down activity-based curriculum developed to help students with profound disabilities to learn the basic motor skills needed for everyday activities in the home and community Includes a sequence of age-appropriate motor activities valuable to the individual’s quest for independent movement in the home and community (continued)

Prescriptive Planning and Instructional Models (continued) Moving to Inclusion Consists of nine books, available in English and French, that address a variety of disability groups. Each book provides ideas for individualizing and modifying activities. These resources are particularly valuable when planning to include students with disabilities in regular physical education classes. (continued)

Prescriptive Planning and Instructional Models (continued) Special Olympics A series of sport-specific instructional manuals, each including long-term goals, short-term objectives, skill assessment, task analysis, teaching suggestions, progression charts, and related information (continued)

Prescriptive Planning and Instructional Models (continued) I CAN A comprehensive physical education and leisure skills program appropriate for children with unique needs Developmental in nature; continuum of skills from preprimary motor and play skills to sport, leisure, and recreation skills Acronym refers to Individualize instruction, Create social leisure competence, Associate all learning, Narrow the gap between theory and practice (continued)

Prescriptive Planning and Instructional Models (continued) I CAN Primary Skills K-3 A performance-based instructional model with feedback methods to improve and modify instruction based on student performance (continued)

Prescriptive Planning and Instructional Models (continued) Smart Start Provides teachers and caregivers with a developmentally appropriate movement curriculum for preschool-aged children of all abilities