Chapter 1 Introduction to Research in Psychology

What is real? An ancient Chinese legend tells that the earth was created from the death of a giant monster/being who held up the heavens. Upon his death different body parts turned into different parts of the earth. His fleas turned into people, that is, people are really monster fleas. Is this real? Is this the truth? An ancient Chinese legend tells that the earth was created from the death of a giant monster/being who held up the heavens. Upon his death different body parts turned into different parts of the earth. His fleas turned into people, that is, people are really monster fleas. Is this real? Is this the truth? The question of what is real is a question of Ontology The question of what is real is a question of Ontology

How do we come to know what is real? If we are monster fleas how do we know this to be true? If we are monster fleas how do we know this to be true? –Tradition/Tenacity –Intuition –Authority –Reasoning/Logic –Empiricism This is a question of Epistemology This is a question of Epistemology

Inductive Logic Moves from the specific to the general Moves from the specific to the general Draws general conclusions based on the observation of many specific events or facts Draws general conclusions based on the observation of many specific events or facts Describes the “typical” situation or case Describes the “typical” situation or case

Strengths and Weaknesses of Induction Presents a good way to describe commonalities Presents a good way to describe commonalities Can answer questions such as: Can answer questions such as: –How are these things alike? –How do these things differ? Does not allow the drawing of cause- effect conclusions Does not allow the drawing of cause- effect conclusions

Deductive Logic Moves from the general rule to specific applications Moves from the general rule to specific applications Draws conclusions based on premises Draws conclusions based on premises Premise 1All dogs can bark. Premise 2 Spot is a dog. ConclusionTherefore, Spot can bark.

Strengths and Weaknesses of Deduction Allows rules to be applied to new situations, such as deducing a testable research hypothesis from a theory Allows rules to be applied to new situations, such as deducing a testable research hypothesis from a theory Allows cause-effect conclusions to be drawn Allows cause-effect conclusions to be drawn Conclusions based on deduction are only accurate if the premises on which they are based are accurate. Conclusions based on deduction are only accurate if the premises on which they are based are accurate. Conclusions based on deduction can be overgeneralized Conclusions based on deduction can be overgeneralized

The Critical Thinking Process 1. Ask questions 2. Define the problem 3. Examine the available evidence 4. Analyze assumptions and biases 5. Avoid emotional reasoning 6. Do no oversimplify 7. Consider other interpretations 8. Tolerate uncertainty

What is Science? Science is not a “thing” or an institution – It is a method for coming to know TRUTH Science is not a “thing” or an institution – It is a method for coming to know TRUTH Scientific Method - The principles and procedures for the systematic pursuit of knowledge utilizing the interaction of empiricism and logic. Scientific Method - The principles and procedures for the systematic pursuit of knowledge utilizing the interaction of empiricism and logic. –Formulation of problem/question –Data collection through observation and experiment –Formulation and testing of hypotheses –Making a conclusion

The Philosophy of Science Science is based on a set of philosophical assumptions Science is based on a set of philosophical assumptions –Objectivism –Universalism –Reductionism –Naturalism –Empiricism Scientism - The belief that science is the only source of accurate knowledge in the universe. Scientism - The belief that science is the only source of accurate knowledge in the universe.

The Goals of Science The goals of science are not good or bad right or wrong The goals of science are not good or bad right or wrong –Description –Explanation –Prediction –Control In the pursuit of these goals, scientists hold and aspire to certain values In the pursuit of these goals, scientists hold and aspire to certain values

The tenets of science Determinism Determinism –belief that events have natural causes –not predeterminism – predestination Empiricism Empiricism –reliance on observed evidence to confirm or refute claims

The tenets of science Replicability Replicability –findings must be replicated before they are accepted Falsifiability Falsifiability –hypotheses and theories must be falsifiable/refutable through empirical research Parsimony Parsimony –simplest explanation for a phenomena

Theories, concepts, and hypotheses Theory – a formal statement of how concepts are related Theory – a formal statement of how concepts are related Concepts – the general category of ideas that are represented by our variables Concepts – the general category of ideas that are represented by our variables Hypothesis – a prediction of how concepts are related that is often deduced from a theory Hypothesis – a prediction of how concepts are related that is often deduced from a theory

Theory A formal set of statements about the relationship between concepts related to a natural phenomenon A formal set of statements about the relationship between concepts related to a natural phenomenon –Concepts are general categories represented by variables Non-scientists use the word to mean tentatively true or POSSIBLY true Non-scientists use the word to mean tentatively true or POSSIBLY true Scientists use the word to mean PROBABLY true Scientists use the word to mean PROBABLY true Most research is theory driven Most research is theory driven From theories come HYPOTHESES – Specific predictions about the relationships between concepts in a theory From theories come HYPOTHESES – Specific predictions about the relationships between concepts in a theory

What Makes a Good Theory Systematic, well organized Systematic, well organized Comprehensive; applicable to many behaviors Comprehensive; applicable to many behaviors –Model – a narrow theory Testable/Disconfirmable Testable/Disconfirmable –Why 99% of scientists (even very religious ones) do not think intelligent design is a scientific theory Parsimonious Parsimonious Useful both for future theoretical development and for practical applications Useful both for future theoretical development and for practical applications

Why we do research To evaluate a theory To evaluate a theory To satisfy our curiosity To satisfy our curiosity To demonstrate a new technique To demonstrate a new technique –Determine if new ways of doing things are better than the old ways

Why we do research To demonstrate a behavioral phenomenon To demonstrate a behavioral phenomenon –need to demonstrate behavior under precise conditions before the phenomenon can be confidently added to the body of knowledge To investigate the conditions influencing behavioral phenomena To investigate the conditions influencing behavioral phenomena

Approaches to Research Descriptive vs. explanatory research Descriptive vs. explanatory research –Descriptive research involves describing a population of measurements. –Explanatory research involves trying to answer “why” questions. Quantitative vs. qualitative research Quantitative vs. qualitative research –Quantitative research measures differences in amount of behavior. –Qualitative research describes differences in kind or quality of behavior.

Approaches to Research Basic vs. applied research Basic vs. applied research –In basic research the researcher is interested in answering a question simply to satisfy hi or her curiosity. –In applied research the researcher is looking at applying the knowledge to somehow benefit humankind.

Approaches to research Cross-sectional vs. longitudinal research Cross-sectional vs. longitudinal research –Cross-sectional research studies individuals of different ages at one point in time.  Cohort effect – a cohort of same aged individuals will share variables related to their history. –Longitudinal research studies a single age cohort over a number of years.

Approaches to Research Field vs. laboratory research Field vs. laboratory research –Field research takes place in a more natural setting. –Laboratory research allows better control over variables. –The decision to conduct research in the laboratory or in the field is a tradeoff between artificiality (high in the lab, low in the field), control over variables (high in the lab, low in the field) and generalizability (low in the lab, high in the field).

Steps in planning and doing research Selecting a research topic: Selecting a research topic: –From life experience –From existing research –Common sense –A new technology

Steps in planning and doing research Generating testable hypotheses Generating testable hypotheses –Operationalize your concepts, i.e.. make them measurable. Classifying variables Classifying variables –Define your independent, dependent, and controlled variables.

Steps in planning and doing research Selecting an appropriate design Selecting an appropriate design –A complex task – you will need to consider time, money, facilities, the kind of variables you intend to measure, etc. Planning the method and carrying it out Planning the method and carrying it out –Focus on all the details.

Steps in planning and doing research Analyzing results Analyzing results –Use the appropriate statistical analysis. Drawing conclusions Drawing conclusions –Interpret the results and draw conclusions. Sharing your findings Sharing your findings –Communicate your finds with others by publishing in journals or presenting at conferences.