Rhetorical Theory: A theory of Judgment Michael Vicaro

Some definitions

Plato (4 th Century BCE): Rhetoric is "the art of winning the soul by discourse.”

Aristotle (4 th Century BCE): Rhetoric is "the faculty of discovering in any particular case all of the available means of persuasion.

George Campbell (18 th century): [Rhetoric] is that art or talent by which discourse is used to enlighten the understanding, please the imagination, move the passion, and influence the will.

Lloyd Bitzer (1968): rhetoric is a mode of altering reality, not by the direct application of energy to objects, but by the creation of discourse which changes reality through the mediation of thought and action.

Michael McGee (1990): Rhetoric is the study of lies and bullshit.

I.

Rhetoric is about Judgment

Greek Problems and Roman Problems

Ancient Greek communication problem:

Greek Problems and Roman Problems Ancient Greek communication problem: How citizens can arrive at collective judgment when they begin with different beliefs and interests and the right course of action is unknown

Greek Problems and Roman Problems Ancient Roman communication problem:

Greek Problems and Roman Problems Ancient Roman communication problem: How to transmit official declarations from the center to the periphery of a broad empire

A rhetorical view of Judgment Implies

Uncertainty

A rhetorical view of Judgment Implies Uncertainty Urgency

A rhetorical view of Judgment Implies Uncertainty Urgency Interdependence

A rhetorical view of Judgment Implies Uncertainty Urgency Interdependence Hope

Alternatives to Judgment:

Alternatives to judgment: Force

Alternatives to judgment: Force Submission

Alternatives to judgment: Force Submission Solitude

Rhetoric, again, is about uncertainty, urgency, interdependence, and hope

II.

Rhetoric is about language

Rhetoric is about language and symbols more generally

But Bodies Matter

III.

Rhetoric is about the Audience

What we must assume

What we must assume- the audience possesses: Intelligence

What we must assume- the audience possesses: Intelligence Influence (their judgment matters)

What we must assume- the audience possesses: Intelligence Influence (their judgment matters) Hopes, fears, passions, ideals, empathy, shame, imagination, etc.

What we must assume- the audience possesses: Intelligence Influence (their judgment matters) Hopes, fears, passions, ideals, empathy, shame, imagination, etc. Pasts and futures

What we must assume- the audience possesses: Intelligence Influence (their judgment matters) Hopes, fears, passions, ideals, empathy, shame, imagination, etc. Pasts and futures Cultures, opinions, beliefs, differences

In sum

Rhetoric is about influencing the judgment of audiences on whom the speaker depends

As critics we can ask Who are the intended and untended audiences? What appeals are made to sway their judgment What alternatives have been excluded?