Part Three: Political Structures/Institutions “Our political institutions work remarkably well. They are designed to clang against each other. The noise is democracy at work.” -- Michael Novak (American philosopher)

Levels of Government  Supranational Organizations – organizations in which nations are not totally sovereign actors  International or regional  Trend towards states pooling their sovereignty to gain political, economic or social clout  Examples?  Growing because of globalization

Levels of Government  Unitary System  Concentrates all policymaking powers in one geographic place  Central government is responsible for most policies  Most countries have unitary  Federal System  Power divided between the central government & sub-units  Regional bodies have significant powers (taxation, lawmaking, keeping order)  Confederal  Power spread among many sub-units (states for example)  Weak central government  EU

Levels of Government  Discussion Questions:  What are the advantages of a federal system over a unitary one?  What are the disadvantages of a federal system over a unitary one?

Levels of Government  Advantages of Federal System: Makes it easier to govern a very large country (physically largest countries tend to have fed arrangements – not China though) Better accommodates regional differences Helps guard against concentration of political power  Disadvantages: Lack of uniformity in policy (ex: voting registration requirements, education requirements) If territorial lines of subunits correspond to deep social divisions, federalism reinforces those divisions

Devolution  Sometimes, leaders of unitary systems voluntarily choose to decentralize power  Called devolution – transfer of power from a central govt to lower/regional govt  Why would they do this?

Three Causes of Devolution  Ethnic Forces  Identity based on language, religion, customs  Ethnonationalism  See themselves as a distinct nation with a right to autonomy  Example?  Economic Forces  Regional inequalities in income or standard of living  Spatial Forces  Usually occur on the margins/borders of the state  Esp if water/mountains separate from central power and neighbor nations support separation

Devolution  Discussion Question: How is devolution in a unitary system different from Federalism?

Devolution  Discussion Question: How is devolution in a unitary system different from Federalism?  Power can be taken away in a unitary system (by the central government)  Subnational government’s powers are not constitutionally protected  In a unitary system decentralization is not necessarily symmetrical  Local legislature/government can be dissolved in unitary systems but not in federal systems

Political Institutions  Structures of the political system  Carry out the work of governing  Vary by country  Common structures that exist in most countries are legislatures, executives, judicial systems, bureaucracies, and armies  Discussion Question: Does the same type of institution (say legislatures) serve the same function in two different countries?

Example - Legislatures Vary in Importance U.S. Congress Extremely active role in forming public policy. House of Commons in Britain Public policy is usually initiated by the cabinet members and this house is usually a deliberating body that formally enacts and amends legislation. National People’s Congress (China) Essentially, a tool of party leaders. They meet and listen to statements by party leaders and “rubberstamp” decisions made by someone else.

Executive Office  Carries out the laws & policies of the state  Head of State  Symbolizes and represents the people  May or may not have policymaking power  Head of Government  In charge of actually running the government  The Chief Executive  Most important person in policymaking  Varies by government  The Cabinet  Most important decision making body in parliamentary systems

Parliamentary vs. Presidential Systems  Parliamentary Systems  Citizens vote for legislative reps, which pick leader of executive branch from majority party  Head of State = mostly symbolic figurehead  Head of Gov’t = day to day  Fusion of powers between executive & legislative branches  Cabinet members = leaders of majority party in Parliament  Chief executive usually does not have veto power  Irregular intervals between elections and votes of confidence

Parliamentary vs. Presidential Systems  Presidential Systems  Citizens vote for legislative reps and executive branch leaders  President – both Head of State & Head of Gov’t  Separation of powers/System of checks and balances  President picks cabinet members  President can veto  Fixed Terms  Semi-Presidential Systems  Prime Minister and President Coexist

Parliamentary vs. Presidential Systems  Discussion Question: What are the advantages and disadvantages for each system?

Parliamentary vs. Presidential Systems  Parliamentary:  Advantages: efficiency in passing legislation, clearer accountability to voters  Disadvantages: instability, hasty decision-making  Presidential:  Adv: checks power of legislature; since directly elected, more of a national mandate  Disadv: difficulty removing unpopular president until next election, gridlock!, creeping authoritarianism  Semi Pres:  Adv: shields pres from criticism (can blame on PM), can remove unpopular PM and maintain stability from pres. fixed term, additional checks and balances  Disadv: confusion about accountability, confusing and inefficient legislation

Legislatures  Branch that makes laws  Bicameral  Two houses  Advantages/Disadvantages?  Unicameral  One house  Advantages/Disadvantages?

Judiciaries  Vary significantly from country to country  Courts in authoritarian systems generally have little/no independence; decisions controlled by chief exec.  Constitutional Courts  Highest judicial body, rules on constitutionality of laws  Judicial review  Power of the judiciary to review laws and executive actions for their constitutionality

Bureaucracies  Agencies that implement government policy  In democracies  Discretionary power  Continuity over time  In authoritarian regimes  Head of government exercises control  Patronage system

Common Characteristics of Bureaucracies  Non-elected positions  Impersonal, efficient structures  Formal qualifications for jobs  Hierarchical organization  Red tape/inefficiency