GRAMMAR AND PUNCTUATION REVISE AND REVIEW WORD CLASSES

LESSON AIMS Revision of word classes and being able to identify them correctly in our writing: How to identify the use of nouns, adjectives and verbs in written sentences. To be able to identify the use of prepositions, conjunctions and adverbs in written form.

NOUNS  Nouns name people, animals, places and concepts etc.  They can be singular or plural, such as science/sciences, or philosophy/philosophies.  Nouns play an important part in the sentence because they tend to be the key elements.  For example: "The students handed in their essays which were then marked by the tutor".  You would probably agree that the nouns (in italics) carry much of the important information in the sentence.  Sometimes nouns are preceded by "a/an" or "the" but this can affect the meaning of the sentence.

NOUNS - EXAMPLE For example: "Students are an asset to modern society" or "The students are an asset to modern society". Note the difference in meaning - the first sentence implies students in general, whilst the second implies a particular group of students, such as "The students (at this college) are...."

PRONOUNS Pronouns are words used to replace nouns. Common pronouns are: I, me, you, he, him, her, they, them, mine, yours, his, hers and theirs. One of their functions is to save us having to repeat nouns.

PRONOUNS - EXAMPLE For example: "The student gave me his book", not "The student gave me the student’s book" or "That pen belongs to Sara. It is hers", not "That pen belongs to Sara. It is Sara’s".

ADJECTIVES An adjective is a describing word. It can appear on its own in the sentence or go before the noun it relates to. Some examples might be: They have interesting jobs. Their jobs are interesting. Examination essays are challenging. One way to think of adjectives is in terms of adding detail to the nouns they describe, as in the last example above. What type of essays are they? Challenging ones!

VERBS A verb is a word used for actions or states. For example: They are writing (action) He went out (action) I will be ready soon (action) They are early (state) She got wet (state)

VERBS - EXAMPLE In formal written English, a sentence needs a verb in order for it to make sense: I (+ verb) cheese can then create sentences like: I love cheese, I am going to buy cheese, I can’t stand cheese, I’d rather have cheese etc. Verbs have different tenses for talking about the present, past and future. Also, the verb may change depending on who or what is doing the action.

VERBS - TENSES For example: He enjoys/I enjoy, or Shelley paid the bill/ The bill was paid by Shelley. In essay writing, make sure that your sentences contain verbs, otherwise sense will be missing from what you are trying to say.

ADVERBS An adverb gives us more information about a verb, an adjective or another adverb. It may tell us about how, when, or where something happened. For example: They strongly agreed. He is usually late. She works fast. They work here.

PREPOSITIONS A preposition shows the relationship of one word to another. For example, it can provide information about time and place. Such as: The book is on the table, not in my bag. Please arrive before nine or after eleven. Also, some prepositions simply go with certain words, such as: result in, keen on, impatient with. Common prepositions are: in, on, at, for, under, over, from, to, into, with, before, after, around, near, past, opposite and between.

CONJUNCTIONS These are linking words which join groups of words and sentences. If you do not use enough of them, your sentences will seem abrupt. Here are some examples of conjunctions: He felt motivated because his results had improved. I was tired, but I continued to work. Due to the fact that the weather is worsening, classes will finish earlier. However, lessons will resume tomorrow.

CONJUNCTIONS - 2- Notice that in the first two sentences, the conjunction links two ideas in a particular relationship. In the third sentence, the same is true, but the conjunction is at the beginning of the sentence. In the last sentence, ‘however’ links with the previous sentence. Therefore conjunctions can link both within and between sentences.

COLONS AND SEMI-COLONS Colons and semi-colons are important aspects of punctuation, and can help to organise and add structure to your writing. There are, however, certain rules which govern their use.

C OLONS (:) Should only be used as follows. * To introduce a list. For example: An essay usually includes the following components: an introduction, a main body of text and a conclusion. * To show a link between the units of meaning, the second explain or summarising the first. For example: The results of the referendum were very clear: there was a need for a change in policy.

SEMI-COLONS (;) Semi-colons are useful in long sentences, but be careful not to over-use them. They give a longer pause than a comma, but not as long as a full stop. They are typically used as follows. * To separate items in a list. For example: In the library, there were several students reading journal articles; a couple of lecturers checking the stock; and a librarian returning books to the shelves. * To provide a break in a sentence, while showing the relationship between the two parts. For example: Night was falling; he knew all was lost.

SEMI-COLONS -2- * To express an idea which is too short to merit a new sentence. For example: Wherever possible, students should try to organise their academic work by using 'planning tools'; these can help to clarify ideas. In some cases semi-colons are followed by linking words, as in the following example. They were unsure regarding the outcome of their assignment they were about to undertake; nevertheless, they would give it their best attempt. The semi-colon can be a powerful tool in helping you to organise your writing, and present your ideas clearly and meaningfully.