Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved This multimedia product and its content are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law: Any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network. Preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or in part, of any images. Any rental, lease, or lending of the program.

 Classical Conditioning  Operant Conditioning  Cognitive Learning Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 A relatively permanent change in behavior, knowledge, capability, or attitude acquired through experience cannot be attributed to illness, injury, or maturation Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 A type of learning through which an organism learns to associate one stimulus with another stimulus  any event or object in the environment to which an organism responds  Classical conditioning was an accidental discovery by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936). Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Neutral stimulus ( tone) is presented shortly before an unconditioned stimulus (food).  Naturally elicits an unconditioned response (salivation)  After repeated pairings, the conditioned stimulus alone (the tone) comes to elicit the conditioned response (salivation). Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Unconditioned Stimulus (US) elicits unconditioned response without learning  e.g., food, loud noise, light in eye, puff of air in eye  Unconditioned Response (UR) response elicited by an unconditioned stimulus without learning  e.g., salivation, startle, contraction of pupil, eyeblink

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved  Conditioned Stimulus (CS) neutral stimulus After repeated pairing with US, the stimulus becomes associated with it. elicits a conditioned response example: a tone  Conditioned Response (CR) learned response elicited by CS in response to, e.g., a tone  Higher-Order Conditioning Conditioned stimuli are linked to form a series of signals.

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved  Extinction weakening and disappearance of CR as a result of repeated presentation of CS without US  Spontaneous Recovery reappearance of extinguished CR when organism is exposed to CS following rest period

 Generalization tendency to make a CR to a stimulus that is similar to the original CS  Discrimination learned ability to distinguish between similar stimuli CR occurs only in response to the original CS, not to similar stimuli. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Watson and Rayner (1920) “Little Albert” Study A child was classically conditioned to fear a rat.  Conditioned fears persist and modify personality throughout life.  Mary Cover Jones (1924) later used classical conditioning to remove fears in another child.

 Pavlov and Watson A critical element of classical conditioning is the repeated pairing of CS and US.  Robert Rescorla A critical element is whether the CS provides information that enables the organism to reliably predict the occurrence of the US. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Genetically programmed tendencies to acquire classically conditioned fear responses to potentially life-threatening stimuli  Martin Seligman (1972): most common fears “are related to the survival of the human species through the long course of evolution”  Taste Aversion the intense dislike and/or avoidance of particular foods that have been associated with nausea or discomfort biologically adaptive for survival Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Exposed rats to 3-way conditioned stimulus: bright light, clicking noise, flavored water  One group was exposed to US producing nausea and vomiting several hours after exposure.  Another group’s US was immediate electric shocks to the feet.  Rats formed an association between nausea and flavored water ingested several hours earlier. contradicted the pri nciple that CS must be presented shortly before the US Animals are biologically predisposed to make associations. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Why can diet soda make people hungry? The sweet taste of soda becomes a CS.  elicits insulin increase (UR)  leads to feelings of hunger The pancreas pumps out insulin (lowers blood sugar) in response to any sweet taste such as diet soda. Without real sugar, insulin causes blood sugar to drop below normal. Insulin drop causes the body to signal to the brain to eat. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Law of Effect (Edward Thorndike) Consequence response determines the tendency to respond in the same way in the future.  strengthened or weakened  Organisms tend to repeat behaviors that bring about pleasant consequences. Law of effect formed the basis for B. F. Skinner’s work on operant conditioning. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Operant Conditioning The consequences of behavior are manipulated to increase or decrease the frequency of an existing response or shape a new one.  Operant voluntary behavior that accidentally brings about a consequence  R einforcer follows a response strengthens it or increases the probability that it will occur Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Shaping learning in small steps rather than all at once rewarding successive approximations of desired response used to condition complex behaviors in people and other animals  Extinction weakening and eventual disappearance of a response as a result of withholding reinforcement Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Generalization tendency to make a learned response to a stimulus similar to that for which the response was originally reinforced  Discriminative Stimulus stimulus that signals whether a response or behavior is likely to be rewarded, ignored, or punished Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Positive Reinforcement a pleasant or desirable consequence after response increases the probability that the response will be repeated  Negative Reinforcement termination of an unpleasant condition after a response increases the probability that the response will be repeated Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Primary Reinforcer a reinforcer that fulfills a basic physical need and does not depend on learning  Secondary Reinforcer a reinforcer that is acquired or learned through association with other reinforcers Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Fixed-Ratio (FR) The reinforcer is given after a fixed number of correct, nonreinforced responses.  Variable-Ratio (VR) The reinforcer is given after a varying number of nonreinforced responses.  Fixed-Interval (FI) The reinforcer is given in response to the first correct response after a specific period of time has elapsed.  Variable-Interval (VI) The reinforcer is given after first correct response following a varying period of time. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Ratio schedules yield higher response rates than interval schedules.  Fixed-ratio schedule: has the highest response rate  Variable schedule: the most resistant to extinction

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Removal of a pleasant stimulus or the application of an unpleasant stimulus  Lowers the probability of a response  Positive Punishment decrease in behavior that results from an added consequence consequence is usually negative  Negative Punishment decrease in behavior that results from a removed consequence loss of something desirable Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Does not extinguish undesirable behavior suppresses the behavior when the punishing agent is present  Indicates that behavior is unacceptable but does not help to develop more appropriate behavior  The punished often become fearful and feel angry toward the punisher.  Frequently leads to aggression Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Removing the rewarding consequences of undesirable behavior may be the best way to extinguish it. not giving in to a child’s demands during a tantrum ignoring misbehavior that is performed merely to get attention and giving attention to more appropriate behaviors  Using positive reinforcement can make good behavior more rewarding. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

1. Most effective when applied during the misbehavior or as soon afterward as possible 2. Should be of the minimum severity necessary to suppress the problem behavior 3. To be effective, must be applied consistently Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Escape Learning performing a behavior because it prevents or terminates an aversive event  Avoidance Learning avoid events or conditions associated with aversive consequence can be adaptive  avoiding riding in a car with a driver who has been drinking Much avoidance learning is maladaptive.  avoiding situations because of phobias  Learned Helplessness exception to learning escape or avoidance behaviors passive resignation to aversive situation due to repeated exposure to inescapable or unavoidable events Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Biofeedback information about internal biological states Sensors monitor slight changes in internal responses. amplify and convert into visual or auditory signals gives precise feedback about internal physiological processes so that people can learn to exercise control over them  used to control migraine headaches, gastrointestinal disorders, asthma, anxiety, epilepsy, sexual dysfunctions, neuromuscular disorders, etc. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Behavior Modification changing behavior based on the learning principles of classical conditioning, operant conditioning, or observational learning used to change self-injurious behavior in children and adults with autism  Token Economy motivates socially desirable behavior by reinforcing it with tokens Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Cognitive Processes mental processes such as thinking, knowing, problem solving, remembering, and forming mental representations  Watson and Skinner believed that learning could be explained without reference to internal mental processes  Today, psychologists stress the role of mental processes.  Important Researchers: Kohler, Tolman, Bandura Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Insight sudden realization of the relationship between elements in a problem makes solution apparent  Köhler studies with chimpanzees Chimpanzees appeared to give up in attempts to get bananas. suddenly realized relationship Behavior seemed to be based on insight, not trial- and-error learning. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Tolman Learning can take place without reinforcement. differentiated between learning and performance  Latent Learning learning that occurs without apparent reinforcement not demonstrated until the organism is motivated to do so  Cognitive Map mental representation of a spatial arrangement such as a maze  Tolman’s mice formed a cognitive map, but did not demonstrate knowledge until rewarded. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Group 1: rats rewarded every day  Group 2: never rewarded  Group 3: rewarded on day 11; outperformed Group 1

 Albert Bandura (1963, 1969, 1977,1986)  Learning by observing the behavior of others and the consequences of that behavior; learning by imitation  The model is the individual who demonstrates a behavior or whose behavior is imitated.  effectiveness of model related to status, competence, and power  Four processes determine whether observational learning is occurring.  Attention  Retention  Reproduction  Reinforcement Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Modeling Effect learning a new behavior from a model through the acquisition of new responses  Facilitation Effect exhibiting a behavior similar to that shown by a model in an unfamiliar situation  Inhibitory Effect suppressing a behavior because a model is punished for displaying the behavior  Disinhibitory Effect displaying a previously suppressed behavior because a model does so without receiving punishment Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Many college students work on assignments in a split- screen format. one part of the screen devoted to work and another to a game  The research is too preliminary to support definitive conclusions.  More time spent multitasking may leave a subject less capable of managing thought processes when not multitasking.  May reduce ability to differentiate between relevant and irrelevant information Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 “ Bobo Doll” Studies (Bandura, 1961) Children imitate aggressive behavior of an adult model seen on film.  Recent Research Individuals who watch the most violence as children are more likely to engage in acts of violence as adults. brain imaging: patterns of neural activation develop by watching violent media  Children also imitate prosocial behavior. Media may teach children not to engage in aggressive acts. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Recent research suggests that playing violent video games increases feelings of hostility and decreases sensitivity to violent images.  Games can also teach positive messages and skills. Games often played in male peer groups may be essential for social development. can teach safe driving skills can enhance women’s spatial cognitive skills Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Educators should not assume that Internet-based instruction is more effective than conventional approaches (Mayer, 2010).  Physical manipulations of the computer distracts online readers. hinders ability to comprehend and remember what they are reading  Younger children using Web-based materials are more likely to be distracted by ads than older children.  Conventional classroom lectures and textbooks are just as useful for learning complex material as multimedia presentations. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved