Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Memory

Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Draw 12 squares on a blank sheet of paper as shown below: A Simple Memory Task 1 ABC 2 DEF 3 GHI 4 JKL 5 MNO 6 PRS 7 TUV 8 WXY 9 * # OPER 0 Reproduce the buttons on a “standard” home telephone (i.e., not a cell phone).

Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Memory Memory is inextricably tied to all aspects of our lives (e.g., behavior, problem-solving, language, etc.) Without memory, we would (literally) need to relearn everything again and again Fortunately, our memory serves most of us very well, but sometimes not… as you just saw How does it all work? Let’s take a look…

Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Distinctions in Memory Explicit memory Ð Memory for information we can readily express and of which we are aware For example, we can recall our names, where we live, etc. Implicit memory Ð Memory for information that we cannot readily express and may not be aware of having For example, our use of language

Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Memory Memory is often seen as steps in an information-processing model: Encoding - transforming information into a form useable by memory Storage - holding information over a period of time Retrieval - accessing the information Problems can occur at any of those stages, resulting in poorer memory performance

Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall A Model of Memory Input Sensory Registers Attention Short-term Memory (STM) Long-term Memory (LTM) Rehearsal DecayDecay DecayDecay DisplacedDisplaced Decay?Decay? Transfer

Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall The Sensory Registers Sensory registers are the first stop for all sensory information Major function is to hold sensory information long enough for pattern recognition to occur Ð Physical characteristics or features of external stimuli are identified, resulting in a recognizable pattern = The sensory registers have limited capacities Information stays for only a very short time

Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Storage and Retrieval in Sensory Memory Visual register holds images, or icons, that represent all aspects of a visual image Ð Icons normally last about.1 second in the visual register Auditory register holds echoes of sound Ð Echoes can last up to several seconds in the auditory register Given the rapidity with which sensory memories decay, retrieval is not possible

Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Attention Selects certain information for further processing We normally pay attention to only a small portion of incoming information We can divide our attention between well-practiced tasks Ð For example, walking and talking Single, most important thing you can do to improve your day- to-day memory… PAY ATTENTION!

Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Short-Term Memory (STM) STM memory holds information of which we are aware or thinking about at any given moment Sometimes referred to as working memory or primary memory Early research indicated STM can hold 7 ± 2 pieces of information Ð Digit span was a test used to assess STM capacity More information can be held through chunking Ð Group small pieces of information into larger, meaningful pieces Current research has demonstrated that STM can hold whatever is rehearsed in 1.5 to 2 seconds

Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Encoding in Short-Term Memory Much information is encoded phonologically or acoustically (according to how it sounds) Some information is encoded visually Research has shown that memory for visually encoded information is better than phonologically encoded information

Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Storage and Retrieval in STM Information can be held in STM by using rote rehearsal (also called maintenance rehearsal) Rote rehearsal involves repeating information over and over If information is not rehearsed, forgetting can occur very quickly Retrieval of information from STM occurs by conducting a serial search of the information

Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Transferring Information to LTM Rote rehearsal is not very effective in creating long-term memories “Elaborative” rehearsal is a more effective Ð Relate new information to things you already know Ð Identify personal references if possible Ð Try explaining the information to someone else Drugs, such as marijuana or alcohol, can disrupt the transfer of information from short-term to long-term memory

Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Long-Term Memory (LTM) Everything we learn is stored in LTM Several types of memories exist Ð Episodic memories Memories for personal events in a specific time and place Ð Semantic memories Memory for general facts and concepts not linked to a specific time Ð Procedural memories Motor skills and habits Ð Emotional memories Learned emotional responses to various stimuli Considered to have unlimited capacity

Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Special Long-Term Memories Cognitive maps Ð Mental representations of the physical environment Eidetic imagery Ð Photographic memory Ð Approximately 8-10% of children Ð Usually disappears in early adolescence Flashbulb memories Ð Vivid memories of dramatic event Ð No rehearsal appears necessary Ð May occur because of strong emotional content

Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Schema Ð Knowledge structure about something based on past experience (e.g., a birthday party) Ð “Scripts” are special types of schemata which provide information of what can be expected Allows new information to be incorporated easily Facilitates recall For example, what is it like to go to a restaurant? 1. be seated 2. order 3. eat 4. pay bill 5. leave

Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Redintegration Ð Phenomenon whereby a single stimulus (e.g., a song) may elicits a flood of related memories (e.g., special evening with a friend, etc.) Ð Photographs, sounds, odors, a story, etc. can all result in redintegration Motor programs Ð Sequences of behaviors that can be performed with little or no attention (e.g., walking) Ð The sequences are organized in time relative to other motor programs For example, we can walk when we are old, even though the sequence of behaviors is slower

Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Encoding in Long-Term Memory Most information is encoded semantically (in terms of meaning) Ð Stories retold by another are seldom presented in exactly the same words Some information is stored verbatim Ð Song lyrics, poems, etc Some information is encoded in terms of nonverbal images Ð What your house looks like, map of the U.S., etc

Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Storage (Organization) in LTM Information in LTM is organized in several ways Ð Spatial organization experiences with physical dimensions or spatial qualities (e.g., cognitive maps) Ð Serial organization information with sequential or ordered characteristics (e.g., stories, set procedures) Ð Hierarchical organization information with ordinate and super-ordinate categories (e.g., family tree, animal/plant kingdom) Ð Associative organization information related to other information (e.g., table-chair) probably the most complex, yet most common form of organization

Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Retrieval in Long-Term Memory Information in LTM is considered to be in an “inactive” state Memories are “activated” when needed and temporarily transferred back to STM (working memory) STM LTM Recall Dr. Yachanin’s phone number If activation is insufficient, recall of information may not occur Ð recognition is often better than recall

Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall The Biology of Memory How are memories formed? Ð Changes in synaptic connections among neural cells Ð Called long-term potentiation -- increase in the effectiveness of neural firing Where are memories stored? Ð There is no one place Ð Different parts of the brain are specialized for different types of information

Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Where Are Memories Stored?

Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall An Alternative Understanding of Memory Depth-of-processing Ð Only one memory (no separate sensory registers, STM, or LTM) Ð Duration of memory depends on the depth with which the information was processed during encoding

Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Forgetting

Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Why Do We Forget? Considerable efforts have been devoted to understanding why we forget No one reason can explain all forgetting

Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Displacement in STM Serial position effect Ð People tend to recall the first items (primacy effect) and last items (recency effect) in a list Ð Intermediate items are lost due to displacement from STM and lack of rehearsal Demonstrates how short- and long-term memory work together

Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Serial Position Effect

Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall The Biology of Forgetting Decay theory Ð Memories deteriorate because of the passage of time Amnesia Ð Memory loss caused by accidents, surgery, or disease Ð Retrograde amnesia Loss of memory for events prior to an accident or injury Ð Anterograde amnesia Inability to form new long-term memories

Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Experience and Forgetting Retroactive interference Ð Occurs when new information interferes with the recall of older information Proactive interference Ð Occurs when older information interferes with the recall of new information

Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Interference

Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Other Factors Contributing to Forgetting Situational factors Ð Recall of information is better if environment is the same as when information was learned State-dependent memory Ð Recall of information is better if person is in the same physiological state as when information was learned For example, high levels of anxiety may result in going “blank” on an exam (in a different state than during study) Poor (weak) encoding Repression Ð Freud argued some very traumatic events are pushed into the unconsciousness to protect of psychological well-being

Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall How to Improve Memory PAY ATTENTION!!! Minimize distractions Use elaborative rehearsal Distribute practice Ð Study for shorter periods of time over several study sessions, rather and “cramming” Apply mnemonics Ð First-letter association Create word or sentence with first letter of each piece of information you need to remember 1. Roy G. Biv 2. HOMES 3. Every good boy does fine

Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall How to Improve Memory Apply mnemonics (continued) Ð Mental imagery Visualize each item and associate it with the previous item (funny or bizarre associations are more easily recalled) Ð Method of loci Identify “landmarks” along a well-known route Visualize one to-be-remembered piece of information at each landmark Take a “mental walk” down the route at the time of recall and notice the information at each landmark

Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall How to Improve Memory Apply mnemonics (continued) Ð Peg-word method Learn a list of “peg-words” (e.g., one-“bun”, two-“shoe”, etc) Visualize to-be-remembered item with the peg Ð Rely on more than memory Habitual incorporation 1. Include to-be-remembered item as part of a daily routine (e.g., take vitamins after every evening dinner) Habitual interruption – Insert to-be-remembered item so it is encountered during a daily routine (e.g., If you need to remember a dentist appointment, put a toothbrush in your coffee cup the night before) Ð Story telling

Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Extra Credit Assignment Extra credit assignment #5 is related to the preceding material.

Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall How to Improve Memory SQ3R Ð Survey Ð Question Ð Read Ð Recite Ð Review Overlearning