1. Sun (Solar constant, TSI) Cosmic material (H +, Dust) Celestial mechanics ( Extra-atmospheric solar irradiance Pedo-lithosphere Atmosphere Inter-planetary space Biosphere Glaciers, Snow cover Permafrost Sea ice Atmosphere: Mass, H 2 O, CO 2, O 3, N 2 O, O 2, N 2 ; Aerosol; Cloud Ocean H 2 O, NaCl, MgCl Biosphere Endogenic processes: Volcanoes, Tectonics 90°- g r Climate System

2. Sun (TSI, magnetic field) Cosmic material (H +, Dust) Celestial mechanics Extra-atmospheric solar irradiance Ionization Pedo-lithosphere Atmosphere Inter-planetary space Biosphere Glaciers, Snow cover Permafrost Sea ice Atmosphere: Mass, H 2 O, CO 2, O 3, N 2 O, O 2, N 2, Aerosol, Cloud Ocean H 2 O, NaCl, MgCl Biosphere Endogenic processes: Volcanoes, Tectonics 90°- g r

3. Main features of the present earth’s climate 1)Mean surface air temperature ≈ 15°C 2)Mean precipitation ≈ 1 m w.e. 3)Equator to Pole temperature gradient ≈ 50°C 4)Climate changes. (It has always been changing.)

5. Modes of Climate Change

8. Camp Century Ice Core

10. Mann et al., 1998

11. Mann, 2002

16. Solar Variability Total Solar Irradiance ± 0.6 W m -2 Ionization CCN Shortwave Radiation Photochemical Reaction Dynamics in Middle Atmosphere UV Tropospheric Circulation Biosphere C- Cycle Temperature Variability Cloud Sun and Climate

17. From the Earth’s surface French IPY Expedition to Tierra del Fuego (1883)2.02 ly min -1 (1409 W m -2 ) Smithsonian Institution mean for 1900-1950 1.96 ly min -1 (1367 W m -2 ) Johnson (1954) 2.00 ly min -1 (1395 W m -2 ) Various older textbooks (e.g.: Foitzik and Hinzpeter, 1958: Table 7.1 on page 173, and Table 7.4 on page 185) list earlier values determined e.g. by Angström (1890; 2017 Wm -2 ), Langley (1884: 2051 Wm -2 ) and Pouillet (1837; 1230 Wm -2 ). From Aircraft, Rockets, Satellites, or High Altitude Balloons Drummond et al. (1967)1375 W m -2 Murcray et al. (1969)1364 W m -2 Willson (1973)1368 W m -2 Thekaekara (1976) 1353 W m -2 Kondratyev and Nikolskii (1980)1373 W m -2 Neckel and Labs (1981) 1368-1377 W m -2 Willson et al. (1981)1368 W m -2 AB1 and WR1 during 1980 (Fröhlich, 2000) 1368 W m -2 Hickey et al. (1982) 1373 W m -2 Fröhlich (1983)1367 W m -2 Crommelynck et al. (1986)1361.5 W m -2 SMM (1978-1993)1367.4 W m -2 Fröhlich and Lean (1998)1366.5 W m -2 ERBS during1984-2000 (Fröhlich, 2006)1365.3 W m -2 SORCE (Kopp)/Fröhlich (peronal communications) 1361.4 W m -2

23. Red line= Zürich (1770-1980) and Bruxelles (1981-present) final numbers Red dots= Eddy, J.A., 1976, Science, 192, 1189 Annual mean sunspot number Relative sunspot number

24. Annual mean sunspot number Relative sunspot number

26. Red: Summer Blue: Winter Black: Year