1. PSY 190: General Psychology Chapter 2: Scientific Methods in Psychology

2. Psychologists must be skeptical and think critically What is the evidence? How was it collected? RESEARCH TECHNIQUES PSYCHOLOGY IS EMPIRICAL Psych conclusions based on research NOT tradition or common sense Knowledge acquired through observation

3.  Parsimony  When given a choice among explanations that all appear to be possible, we should select the one whose assumptions are the simplest and are most consistent to known theories RESEARCH TECHNIQUES

4.  So, instead of relying only on common sense…  We use it in the scientific method  See next slide RESEARCH TECHNIQUES

5.  Observations  “You can observe a lot by watching”  Theories  Explains, organizes, and predicts observable behavior  This is where our common sense can help  Hypotheses  Best guesses  Testable predictions EXPERIMENTATION: THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

6. IT’S A CONTINUOUS CYCLE theories observations hypotheses

7.  DV  Variable (behavior) you are measuring  What the researcher is trying to find out  IV  Variable or variables being manipulated  Factors that the researcher is attempting to isolate VARIABLES: DEPENDENT AND INDEPENDENT

8.  Clearly defining our variables  Eliminates confusion  Allows others to be able to successfully replicate our experiment OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS

9.  Experimental Condition  The condition of an experiment that exposes participants to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable  Control Condition  The condition of an experiment that contrasts with the experimental treatment  A true control group does not get any treatment THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

10.  Features  Manipulation of an independent variable and measurement of its effects on a dependent variable  Strengths  Can establish a cause-effect relationship between independent and dependent variables  Weaknesses  Confounding variables may prevent valid conclusions EXPERIMENTS

11.  Features  Observations of humans or animal behavior in the environment in which it typically occurs  Strengths  Provides descriptive data about behavior presumably uncontaminated by outside influences  Weaknesses  Observer bias and participant self-consciousness can distort results NATURALISTIC OBSERVATIONS

12.  Features  Intensive examination of the behavior and mental processes associated with a specific person or situation  Strengths  Provide detailed descriptive analysis of new, complex, or rare phenomenon  Weaknesses  May not provide representative picture of phenomena CASE STUDIES

13.  Features  Standard set of questions asked of a large number of participants  Strengths  Gather large amounts of descriptive data relatively quickly and inexpensively  Weaknesses  Sampling errors, poorly phrased questions, and response biases can distort results SURVEYS

14.  Features  Statistically speaking, it refers to how strongly one variable is related to another  Strengths  Allows researcher to better formulate their hypothesis – gives ideas that we can explore further  Weaknesses  Data can sometimes fool us (we’ll get to this in a second) CORRELATIONS

15.  Positive Correlation  Two variables either increase or decrease together (same direction)  Negative Correlation  The variables move in opposite directions CORRELATIONS

16. PLEASE, DON’T EAT ICE CREAM!

18. CORRELATIONS

19. Limitations to Research  Sampling Issues Convenience vs. random Are either representative?  Participant Behavior Orne (1962)  Participant Bias All experiments must be at least “single-blind” Be careful of “placebo effect”  Experimenter Bias To prevent this a “double-blind” design may be used  Confounding Variables Too much “noise” can be a problem Convenience sample: University Intro Psych Students 

20.  Deception  Experimentation on Animals ETHICAL ISSUES IN PSYCHOLOGY

21.  Milgram (1963)  Original study included 40 male college students as the participants  Several other versions were conducted by Stanley Milgram who was a professor at Yale University USE OF DECEPTION

22.  Participants told experiment tested the effects of punishment on verbal learning (memory)  Participant (teacher)  Confederate (learner) MILGRAM (1963)

23.  Confederate is placed in “electric chair”  Participant sits in front of shock machine which is clearly labeled MILGRAM (1963)

27.  Did participants realize it was a hoax? MILGRAM (1963)

28.  Psychiatrists guessed that 1 in 1000 would go clear to 450 volts (only “true psychopaths”)  But, in the original study, 65% went all the way and pulled the XXX 450 volt lever RESULTS OF MILGRAM’S OBEDIENCE EXPERIMENT

29.  In its original form, Milgram’s experiment would not be allowed by American Psychological Assciation (APA) today - considered to be an unethical experiment ETHICAL IMPLICATIONS INVOLVED…

30.  Institutional Research Board (IRB)  Informed consent  Confidentiality  Protect participants  Debriefing ETHICAL ISSUES

31.  Institutional Review Board (IRB)  Most institutions of higher learning and outside of academia as well (for instance, medical facilities) have this committee  Represents the APA at these institutions  Made up of colleagues knowledgeable in research and ethics  Sole purpose is to assure that all studies and experiments are conducted adhering to stringent ethical considerations AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION (APA)

32.  IRB Guidelines for using deception  Use deception sparingly  Must be good reason to use deception (application to the real world)  No other way to get meaningful results (validity)  Deception must not cause any harm to the participant INSTITUTIONAL REVIEW BOARD (IRB)

33.  All participants are required to read, sign, and date this form before participating in a study  Names of researchers and institution conducting study  Purpose  Procedures  Confidentiality must be assured  Participants can leave at any time  Researcher’s contact information INFORMED CONSENT

34.  Full Debriefing is required for all participants  Explanation of experiment including researchers’ hypothesis and rationale for conducting the experiment  If deception was used, researchers must “come clean” and explain why it was used  Answering of any questions the participant or participants might have  Refer to counseling services if needed  Offer to supply results of the study  Make sure participants leave testing laboratory in the same mental state they arrived  This is by far the most important part of the debriefing DEBRIEFING

35.  IRB guidelines for the ethical care and use of animals – there must be a reasonable expectation that the research will:  Increase knowledge of processes that have significance insofar as behavior is concerned  Increase understanding of the species under study  Provide results that benefit the health or welfare of humans or other animals USE OF ANIMALS

36.  Helps us to make sense of our data  Types:  Descriptive Statistics  Inferential Statistics STATISTICS

37.  Measures of Central Tendency  Mode  Mean  Median  Measures of Variation  Range  Standard Deviation DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS

38.  Statistical Significance  When the difference observed between two groups is probably not due to chance factors Inferential Statistics

39.  Research generates more questions than answers  Use humility  Don’t use the word “prove” WHEN LOOKING AT YOUR RESULTS…

40. PEER REVIEW PROCESS “BLIND REVIEW”  Manuscript is sent to journal  Two versions  One with names that editor keeps  The other is referred to as a “blind copy” - manuscript with title page omitting names of authors and any other identifying information  Editor then sends blind copies to reviewers  Reviewers are experts in field (not required to sign their review)  Editor makes final decision but usually bases decision on recommendations of reviewers

41.  Four possible outcomes:  Acceptance (this is extremely rare)  Minor Revision  Major Revision  Rejection PEER REVIEW PROCESS “BLIND REVIEW”

42.  Use American Psychological Association (APA) format WRITING YOUR MANUSCRIPT…