1. The Cell Cycle

2. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Eukaryotic cell division consists of: – ________, the division of the nucleus – ________, the division of the cytoplasm

3. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Mitotic cell division results in genetically identical ____???______cells Cells duplicate their genetic material before they divide, ensuring that each daughter cell receives an exact copy of the genetic material, DNA Eukaryotic chromosomes consist of __________, a complex of DNA and protein that condenses during cell division Every eukaryotic species has a characteristic number of chromosomes in each cell nucleus

4. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Distribution of Chromosomes During Cell Division DNA is replicated and the chromosomes condense Each duplicated chromosome has two sister ________, which separate during cell division The ________is the narrow “waist” of the duplicated chromosome, where the two chromatids are most closely attached

5. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Phases of the Cell Cycle The cell cycle consists of – Mitotic (M) phase (mitosis and cytokinesis) – Interphase (cell growth and copying of chromosomes in preparation for cell division) Interphase (about 90% of the cell cycle) can be divided into subphases: – G 1 phase – S phase – G 2 phase

6. LE 12-5 G1G1 G2G2 S (DNA synthesis) INTERPHASE Cytokinesis MITOTIC (M) PHASE Mitosis

7. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Mitosis is conventionally divided into four phases: – Prophase – Metaphase – Anaphase – Telophase Cytokinesis is well underway by late telophase

8. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings 1.Prophase - Chromatin condenses, this causes the chromosomes to begin to become visible -Centrosomes (centrioles) separate, moving to opposite ends of the nucleus -The centrosomes start to form spindles used to separate the two sister chromatids. -Nucleolus disappears - Nuclear envelope fragments - Chromosomes become more condensed and attached to spindles.

9. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

10. 2. Metaphase - Chromosomes align on an axis called the metaphase plate - Note: the spindle consists of microtubules, one attached to each chromosome

11. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings 3. Anaphase - Each centromere splits making two chromatids free - Each chromatid moves toward a pole

12. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings 4. Telophase Formation of nuclear membrane and nucleolus Short and thick chromosomes begin to elongate to form long and thin chromatin Cytokinesis = division of the cytoplasm Formation of the cleavage furrow - a shallow groove in the cell near the old metaphase plate

13. LE 12-9a Cleavage furrow 100 µm Contractile ring of microfilaments Daughter cells Cleavage of an animal cell (SEM)

14. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Mitosis

15. LE 12-9b 1 µm Daughter cells Cell plate formation in a plant cell (TEM) New cell wall Cell plate Wall of parent cell Vesicles forming cell plate

16. LE 12-10 Nucleus Cell plate Chromosomes Nucleolus Chromatin condensing 10 µm Prophase. The chromatin is condensing. The nucleolus is beginning to disappear. Although not yet visible in the micrograph, the mitotic spindle is starting to form. Prometaphase. We now see discrete chromosomes; each consists of two identical sister chromatids. Later in prometaphase, the nuclear envelope will fragment. Metaphase. The spindle is complete, and the chromosomes, attached to microtubules at their kinetochores, are all at the metaphase plate. Anaphase. The chromatids of each chromosome have separated, and the daughter chromosomes are moving to the ends of the cell as their kinetochore micro- tubules shorten. Telophase. Daughter nuclei are forming. Meanwhile, cytokinesis has started: The cell plate, which will divide the cytoplasm in two, is growing toward the perimeter of the parent cell.

17. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings End for today

18. LE 12-14 G 1 checkpoint G1G1 S M M checkpoint G 2 checkpoint G2G2 Control system

19. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings The Cell Cycle Control System The sequential events of the cell cycle are directed by a distinct cell cycle control system, which is similar to a clock The clock has specific checkpoints where the cell cycle stops until a go-ahead signal is received (G1, G2, M) For many cells, the G 1 checkpoint seems to be the most important one

20. LE 12-15 G1G1 G 1 checkpoint G1G1 G0G0 If a cell receives a go-ahead signal at the G 1 checkpoint, the cell continues on in the cell cycle. If a cell does not receive a go-ahead signal at the G 1 checkpoint, the cell exits the cell cycle and goes into G 0, a nondividing state.

21. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Stop and Go Signs: Internal and External Signals at the Checkpoints An example of an internal signal is that kinetochores not attached to spindle microtubules send a molecular signal that delays anaphase Some external signals are growth factors, proteins released by certain cells that stimulate other cells to divide

22. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Another example of external signals is density- dependent inhibition, in which crowded cells stop dividing Most animal cells also exhibit anchorage dependence, in which they must be attached to a substratum in order to divide

23. LE 12-18a Cells anchor to dish surface and divide (anchorage dependence). When cells have formed a complete single layer, they stop dividing (density-dependent inhibition). If some cells are scraped away, the remaining cells divide to fill the gap and then stop (density-dependent inhibition). 25 µm Normal mammalian cells

24. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Cancer cells exhibit neither density-dependent inhibition nor anchorage dependence

25. LE 12-18b Cancer cells do not exhibit anchorage dependence or density-dependent inhibition. Cancer cells 25 µm

26. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Loss of Cell Cycle Controls in Cancer Cells Cancer cells do not respond normally to the body’s control mechanisms Cancer cells form tumors, masses of abnormal cells within otherwise normal tissue If abnormal cells remain at the original site, the lump is called a benign tumor Malignant tumors invade surrounding tissues and can metastasize, exporting cancer cells to other parts of the body, where they may form secondary tumors

27. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Cell cycle – Nobelprize Visit site and completed cell cycle control activity.