1. Syntax II

2. Specifiers Specifiers tell us more information about nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and prepositions The, a, this, three, some, many etc. Determiners are specifiers of nouns Very, really, quiet, so Qualifiers are specifiers of adjectives and adverbs

3. Modifiers Modifiers also give us more information. But, unlike specifiers, modifiers can be considered words and phrases in their own right. Because modifiers – unlike specifiers – are lexical categories in their own right, they get their own phrase markers. Modifiers can be optional (adjuncts) or obligatory (complements)

4. Complements Complements are not optional. Removing them makes the sentence ambiguous. I loved the policeman *I loved A dog chased the cat *A dog * A dog chased Gareth put the car in the garage *Gareth put *Gareth put the car

5. X-X-Bar Syntax X’ (pronounced X-bar) is a category bigger than the word but smaller than the phrase. Where X = N/V/A/P etc. In this we have two rules: a) XP  {specifier} + X’ b) X’  X + (YP) E.g. NP = det. + N’ N’ = N + VP / N’ = N + PP

6. I loved the policeman

7. The dog chased the cat

8. Gareth put the car in the garage

9. Adjuncts Unlike complements, adjuncts are optional ‘big’ + ‘dog’  the adjective big gives us more information about the noun dog ‘John eats’ + ‘dinner’  The NP ‘dinner’ gives us more information about the VP ‘eats’ ‘John eats dinner’ + ‘at 5 o’clock’  the prepositional phrase ‘at 5 o’clock’ gives us more information about John’s eating of dinner (not breakfast, lunch etc.)

10. Adjuncts Optional, additional information for the head. A big dog chased the cat I loved the policeman with all my heart I loved the policeman intensely with all my heart

11. Recall: a) XP  {specifier} + X’ b)X’  X + (YP*) [YP*  any number of complements] E.g. NP = det. + N’ N’ = N + VP / N’ = N + PP However, for adjuncts, we need a slightly different rule

12. Complement XP  {specifier} + X’ b)X’  X + (YP) Adjunct a) XP  {specifier} + X’ b)X’  X’ + (ZP*) [ZP*  any number of adjuncts]

13. Because the adjunct rule takes an X’ position and creates an extra X’ position, it is recursive. XP  X’ + (YP*) X’  X’ + (YP*) Furthermore, it allows us to see how things like adjectives fit into our tree structure

14. N The men The green men The little green men

15. N The little green men from Mars The little green men

16. I loved the policeman with all my heart

17. I loved the policeman intensely with all my heart

18. I loved the policeman intensely with all my heart in England

19. I like the house on the corner

20. I like the house with no sign

21. I like the house with no sign on the corner

22. I like the house on the corner with no sign

24. I enthusiastically recommend the candidate with no qualifications whatsoever