1. Data and Computer Communications Tenth Edition by William Stallings Data and Computer Communications, Tenth Edition by William Stallings, (c) Pearson Education - 2013

2. Routing CHAPTER 19

3. Routing in Switched Data Networks "I tell you," went on Syme with passion, "that every time a train comes in I feel that it has broken past batteries of besiegers, and that man has won a battle against chaos. You say contemptuously that when one has left Sloane Square one must come to Victoria. I say that one might do a thousand things instead, and that whenever I really come there I have the sense of hairbreadth escape. And when I hear the guard shout out the word 'Victoria', it is not an unmeaning word. It is to me the cry of a herald announcing conquest. It is to me indeed 'Victoria'; it is the victory of Adam." —The Man Who Was Thursday, G.K. Chesterton

4. Routing in Packet Switching Networks  Key design issue for (packet) switched networks  Select route across network between end nodes  Characteristics required: Correctness Correctness Simplicity Simplicity Robustness Robustness Stability Stability Fairness Fairness Optimality Optimality Efficiency Efficiency

5. Table 19.1 Elements of Routing Techniques for Packet-Switching Networks

6. Performance Criteria  Used for selection of route  Simplest is to choose “minimum hop”  Can be generalized as “least cost” routing  Because “least cost” is more flexible it is more common than “minimum hop”

8. Decision Time and Place Decision time Packet or virtual circuit basis Fixed or dynamically changing Decision place Distributed - made by each node More complex, but more robust Centralized – made by a designated node Source – made by source station

9. Network Information Source and Update Timing  Routing decisions usually based on knowledge of network, traffic load, and link cost Distributed routing Distributed routing Using local knowledge, information from adjacent nodes, information from all nodes on a potential routeUsing local knowledge, information from adjacent nodes, information from all nodes on a potential route Central routing Central routing Collect information from all nodesCollect information from all nodes Issue of update timing Depends on routing strategy Fixed - never updated Adaptive - regular updates

10. Routing Strategies - Fixed Routing  Use a single permanent route for each source to destination pair of nodes  Determined using a least cost algorithm  Route is fixed Until a change in network topology Until a change in network topology Based on expected traffic or capacity Based on expected traffic or capacity  Advantage is simplicity  Disadvantage is lack of flexibility Does not react to network failure or congestion Does not react to network failure or congestion

12. Routing Strategies - Flooding  Packet sent by node to every neighbor  Eventually multiple copies arrive at destination  No network information required  Each packet is uniquely numbered so duplicates can be discarded  Need to limit incessant retransmission of packets Nodes can remember identity of packets retransmitted Nodes can remember identity of packets retransmitted Can include a hop count in packets Can include a hop count in packets

14. Properties of Flooding All possible routes are tried Highly robust Can be used to send emergency messages At least one packet will have taken minimum hop route Nodes directly or indirectly connected to source are visited Disadvantages: High traffic load generated Security concerns

15. Routing Strategies - Random Routing  Simplicity of flooding with much less traffic load  Node selects one outgoing path for retransmission of incoming packet  Selection can be random or round robin  Arefinement is to select outgoing path based on probability calculation  No network information needed  Random route is typically neither least cost nor minimum hop

16. Routing Strategies - Adaptive Routing  Used by almost all packet switching networks  Routing decisions change as conditions on the network change due to failure or congestion  Requires information about network Disadvantages: Decisions more complex Tradeoff between quality of network information and overhead Reacting too quickly can cause oscillation Reacting too slowly means information may be irrelevant

17. Adaptive Routing Advantages Improved performance Aid in congestion control These benefits depend on the soundness of the design and nature of the load

18. Classification of Adaptive Routing Strategies  A convenient way to classify is on the basis of information source

20. ARPANET Routing Strategies 1st Generation

23. ARPANET Routing Strategies 2nd Generation

25. ARPANET Routing Strategies 3rd Generation

27. Internet Routing Protocols  Routers are responsible for receiving and forwarding packets through the interconnected set of networks Makes routing decisions based on knowledge of the topology and traffic/delay conditions of the internet Makes routing decisions based on knowledge of the topology and traffic/delay conditions of the internet Routers exchange routing information using a special routing protocol Routers exchange routing information using a special routing protocol  Two concepts in considering the routing function: Routing information Routing information  Information about the topology and delays of the internet Routing algorithm Routing algorithm  The algorithm used to make a routing decision for a particular datagram, based on current routing information

28. Autonomous Systems (AS)  Exhibits the following characteristics: Is a set of routers and networks managed by a single organization Is a set of routers and networks managed by a single organization Consists of a group of routers exchanging information via a common routing protocol Consists of a group of routers exchanging information via a common routing protocol Except in times of failure, is connected (in a graph-theoretic sense); there is a path between any pair of nodes Except in times of failure, is connected (in a graph-theoretic sense); there is a path between any pair of nodes

29. Interior Router Protocol (IRP)  A shared routing protocol which passes routing information between routers within an AS  Custom tailored to specific applications and requirements

31. Exterior Router Protocol (ERP)  Protocol used to pass routing information between routers in different ASs  Will need to pass less information than an IRP for the following reason: If a datagram is to be transferred from a host in one AS to a host in another AS, a router in the first system need only determine the target AS and devise a route to get into that target system If a datagram is to be transferred from a host in one AS to a host in another AS, a router in the first system need only determine the target AS and devise a route to get into that target system Once the datagram enters the target AS, the routers within that system can cooperate to deliver the datagram Once the datagram enters the target AS, the routers within that system can cooperate to deliver the datagram The ERP is not concerned with, and does not know about, the details of the route The ERP is not concerned with, and does not know about, the details of the route

32. Approaches to Routing  Internet routing protocols employ one of three approaches to gathering and using routing information: Distance-vector routing Link-state routing Path-vector routing

33. Distance-Vector Routing  Requires that each node exchange information with its neighboring nodes Two nodes are said to be neighbors if they are both directly connected to the same network Two nodes are said to be neighbors if they are both directly connected to the same network  Used in the first-generation routing algorithm for ARPANET  Each node maintains a vector of link costs for each directly attached network and distance and next-hop vectors for each destination  Routing Information Protocol (RIP) uses this approach

34. Link-State Routing  Designed to overcome the drawbacks of distance- vector routing  When a router is initialized, it determines the link cost on each of its network interfaces  The router then advertises this set of link costs to all other routers in the internet topology, not just neighboring routers  From then on, the router monitors its link costs  Whenever there is a significant change the router again advertises its set of link costs to all other routers in the configuration  The OSPF protocol is an example  The second-generation routing algorithm for ARPANET also uses this approach

35. Path-Vector Routing  Alternative to dispense with routing metrics and simply provide information about which networks can be reached by a given router and the ASsvisited in order to reach the destination network by this route  Differs from a distance-vector algorithm in two respects: The path-vector approach does not include a distance or cost estimate The path-vector approach does not include a distance or cost estimate Each block of routing information lists all of the ASs visited in order to reach the destination network by this route Each block of routing information lists all of the ASs visited in order to reach the destination network by this route

36. Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)  Was developed for use in conjunction with internets that employ the TCP/IP suite  Has become the preferred exterior router protocol for the Internet  Designed to allow routers in different autonomous systems to cooperate in the exchange of routing information  Protocol operates in terms of messages, which are sent over TCP connections  Current version is known as BGP-4 (RFC 4271) Three functional procedures: Neighbor acquisition Neighbor reachability Network reachability

37. Table 19.2 BGP-4 Messages

38. Neighbor Acquisition  Occurs when two neighboring routers in different autonomous systems agree to exchange routing information regularly  Two routers send Open messages to each other after a TCP connection is established If each router accepts the request, it returns a Keepalive message in response If each router accepts the request, it returns a Keepalive message in response  Protocol does not address the issue of how one router knows the address or even the existence of another router nor how it decides that it needs to exchange routing information with that particular router

40. Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) Protocol  RFC 2328  Used as the interior router protocol in TCP/IP networks  Computes a route through the internet that incurs the least cost based on a user- configurable metric of cost  Is able to equalize loads over multiple equal-cost paths

43. Table 19.3 Routing Table for R6

44. Dijkstra’s Algorithm  Finds shortest paths from given source nodesto all other nodes  Develop paths in order of increasing path length  Algorithm runs in stages Each time adding node with next shortest path Each time adding node with next shortest path  Algorithmterminates when all nodes have been added to T

45. Dijkstra’s Algorithm Method Step 3 [Update Least-Cost Paths] L(n) = min[L(n), L(x) + w(x, n)] for all n  T If latter term is minimum, path from s to n is path from s to x concatenated with edge from x to n Step 2 [Get Next Node] Find neighboring node not in T with least-cost path from s Incorporate node into T Also incorporate the edge that is incident on that node and a node in T that contributes to the path Step 1 [Initialization] T = {s} Set of nodes so far incorporated L(n) = w(s, n) for n ≠ s Initial path costs to neighboring nodes are simply link costs

46. Table 19.4(a) Example of Least-Cost Routing Algorithms (using Figure 19.1) Dijkstra'a Algorithm (s = 1)

48. Bellman-Ford Algorithm  Find shortest paths from given node subject to constraint that paths contain at most one link  Findthe shortest paths with a constraint of paths of at most two links  Proceeds in stages  Proceeds in stages

49. Bellman-Ford Algorithm

50. Table 19.4(b) Example of Least-Cost Routing Algorithms (using Figure 19.1) Bellman-Ford Algorithm (s = 1)

52. Comparison  Bellman-Ford Calculation for node n needs link cost to neighboring nodes plus total cost to each neighbor from s Calculation for node n needs link cost to neighboring nodes plus total cost to each neighbor from s Each node can maintain set of costs and paths for every other node Each node can maintain set of costs and paths for every other node Can exchange information with direct neighbors Can exchange information with direct neighbors Can update costs and paths based on information from neighbors and knowledge of link costs Can update costs and paths based on information from neighbors and knowledge of link costs  Dijkstra Each node needs complete topology Must know link costs of all links in network Must exchange information with all other nodes

53. Evaluation Dependent on Processing time of algorithms Amount of information required from other nodes Implementation specific Both converge under static topology and costs Both converge to same solution If link costs change, algorithms attempt to catch up If link costs depend on traffic, which depends on routes chosen, may have feedback instability

54. Summary  Routing in packet- switching networks Characteristics Characteristics Routing strategies Routing strategies  Examples: Routing in ARPANET First generation: Distance Vector Routing First generation: Distance Vector Routing Second generation: Link-State Routing Second generation: Link-State Routing Third generation Third generation  Internet routing protocols Autonomous systems Approaches to routing Border gateway protocol OSPF protocol  Least-cost algorithms Dijkstra’s algorithm Bellman-Ford algorithm Comparison