1. Graphs and Shortest Paths Using ADTs and generic programming

2. Graphs v1v1 v2v2 v5v5 v7v7 v8v8 v3v3 v6v6 v4v4 A graph consists of a set of vertices V and a set of edges E  V  V Undirected graph:  E consists of unordered pairs: Edge (u, v) is the same as (v, u) Undirected graphs are drawn with nodes for vertices and line segments for edges

3. Digraphs v1v1 v2v2 v5v5 v7v7 v8v8 v3v3 v6v6 v4v4 A directed graph, or digraph:  E is set of ordered pairs, and not necessarily a symmetric set. Even if edge (u, v) is present, the edge (v, u) may be absent Directed graphs are drawn with nodes for vertices and arrows for edges

4. Paths and Weights A path is a sequence of vertices w 1,w 2,…,w n, where there is an edge for each pair of consecutive vertices The length of a path of n vertices is n-1 (the number of edges) A path is simple if all its vertices are distinct (except that the first and last may be equal) Edges may have weights associated with them The cost of a path is the sum of the weights of the edges along the path v1v1 v2v2 v5v5 v7v7 v8v8 v3v3 v6v6 v4v4 3 1 5 2 -2 4

5. Cycles A cycle is a path w 1,w 2,…,w n =w 1, where the first and the last vertices are the same  A cycle is simple if the path is simple. Above, v 2, v 8, v 6, v 3, v 5, v 2 is a (simple) cycle in the undirected graph, but not (even a path) in the digraph v1v1 v2v2 v5v5 v7v7 v8v8 v3v3 v6v6 v4v4 v1v1 v2v2 v5v5 v7v7 v8v8 v3v3 v6v6 v4v4

6. Further terminology An undirected graph G is connected if, for each pair of vertices u, v, there is a path that starts at u and ends at v A digraph H that satisfies the above condition is strongly connected Otherwise, if H is not strongly connected, but the undirected graph G with the same set of vertices and edges is connected, H is said to be weakly connected v1v1 v2v2 v5v5 v7v7 v8v8 v3v3 v6v6 v4v4 v1v1 v2v2 v5v5 v7v7 v8v8 v3v3 v6v6 v4v4

7. Data structures representing graphs A digraph can be stored as a 2-dimensional array A, with indexes ranging from 0 to n-1, where n=|V| Unweigthed graphs: A[u][v]==true if edge (u,v) is in the graph, otherwise A[u][v]== false Graphs with weights: A[u][v]== w, the weight of the edge (u,v) Undirected graphs can be represented more efficiently, having the second range be 0 to i, where i is the index in the first range. This representation, the Adjacency Matrix, requires O(n 2 ) space, where n is the number of vertices It is wasteful for sparse graphs, where most of the possible edges are not present.

8. Adjacency matrix example v1v1 v2v2 v5v5 v7v7 v0v0 v3v3 v6v6 v4v4 A01234567 0FFFFFFTF 1FFFFTFFF 2TFFFFFFF 3FFFFFTTF 4FFFFFFFF 5FFTFFFFF 6FFFFFFFF 7TFFFFFFF

9. Graph density and efficient storage A complete graph contains an edge for every pair of vertices On the other extreme, sparse graphs contain much fewer than the O(n 2 ) possible edges  Example: Every intersection in Manhattan is a vertex, an edge is the portion of a street between intersections  In this graph, each vertex has an average of 4 edges, so |E| = O(n) The adjacency list is a space- efficient approach to storing sparse graphs For each vertex, maintain a list of outgoing edges (pointers to other vertices) Takes O(|V|+|E|) space  Approach 1: A Hashtable maps vertices to adjacency lists  Approach 2: Vertex structure maintains a list of pointers to other vertices

10. Adjancency list example v1v1 v2v2 v5v5 v7v7 v0v0 v3v3 v6v6 v4v4 06,7 12 20 35 41 52 63 74

11. Graph-based algorithms Introduction to some graph-based problems and approaches

12. Topological sorting Let G be a directed acyclic graph (DAG) Topological sorting refers to ordering the vertices of G such that if there is an edge from v i to v j, then v j appears after v i

13. Topological sorting E.g.: Binary tree, where the binary nodes store no pointers to parent  Children pointers are viewed as representing directed edges from parent to child The binary node is a vertex structure Level-order and pre-order would be topological sortings in this graph. 1 root 45 3 67 2

14. Topological sorting (example) A topological sorting of the above could be:  MAC3311, COP3210, MAD2104, CAP3700, COP3400, COP3337, COP4555, MAD3305, MAD3512, COP3530, CDA4101, COP4610, CDA4400, COP4225, CIS4610, COP5621, COP4540

15. Topological sorting (algorithm) In a DAG, there must be a vertex with no incoming edges Have each vertex maintain its indegree Have each vertex maintain a Boolean flag found Repeatedly find a vertex of current indegree 0, assign it a rank, then reduce the indegrees of the vertices in its adjacency list If a vertex of current indegree 0 has been already found, a cycle exists, output failure

16. Initializing indegree computation struct Vertex{ list adj; // Adjacency list bool known; int indegree; int rank; // Other data and // member functions // as needed }; // Assume vertices in // vector verts; void computeInDegrees(){ for(int i=0; i<verts.size(); verts[i].indegree =0, i++); for(int i=0; i< verts.size(); i++) { for(list ::iterator j= verts[i].adj.begin(); j!= verts[i].adj.end(); (*j).indegree++, j++); } In plain English, the above first sets all indegrees temporarily to 0, then visits all vertices’ adjancency lists, and for each edge found, increments the indegree of pointed vertex

17. Topological sorting (final) int topologicalSort() { list zeroIn; computeInDegrees(); //Initialize indegrees for(int i=0; i< verts.size(); i++) { if (verts[i].indegree ==0) zeroIn.push_back(verts[i]); } int rank=0; Vertex curr; while(rank < verts.size()) { if(zeroIn.empty()) return FAILURE; //A cycle found! curr = zeroIn.back(); zeroIn.pop_back(); curr.rank = rank++; for(list ::iterator j = curr.adj.begin(); j != curr.adj.end(); j++) { (*j).indegree--; if( (*j).indegree == 0) zeroIn.push_back(*j); } return SUCCESS; }