1. ADEQUACY OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH AND ITS PARADIGM by Dr. Ronald M. Henson Research Consultant

2. Issues in Qualitative Research adequacy of conclusions, building theory, and guiding practice adequacy of conclusions, building theory, and guiding practice avoid personal bias, dogma, and superstition, what keeps science from being merely a forum for proselytizing one's own view avoid personal bias, dogma, and superstition, what keeps science from being merely a forum for proselytizing one's own view criticism: it lacks rigor and therefore is open to bias criticism: it lacks rigor and therefore is open to bias research guided by one's paradigm and beliefs about the nature or reality and research, there is always an element of one's own "bias" in all research research guided by one's paradigm and beliefs about the nature or reality and research, there is always an element of one's own "bias" in all research less rigorous than quantitative methods less rigorous than quantitative methods Lincoln and Guba (1985) and Sandelowski (1986) shows how "qualitative research can be made rigorous without sacrificing its relevance Lincoln and Guba (1985) and Sandelowski (1986) shows how "qualitative research can be made rigorous without sacrificing its relevance

3. Criteria for Adequacy (Lincoln and Guba, 1985) rigor in scientific research like quantitative research rigor in scientific research like quantitative research Criteria:QUANTI QUALI Truth-valueInternal Validity Credibility Truth-valueInternal Validity Credibility Applicability External Validity Fittingness Applicability External Validity Fittingness Consistency Reliability Auditability Consistency Reliability Auditability Neutrality Objectivity Confirmability Neutrality Objectivity Confirmability

4. Definitions of Attributes QUANTITATIVE Internal validity : the elimination of alternative hypotheses such as history, maturation, testing effects, regression, instrumentation, subject selection, and mortality; relates to validity of instruments such as content validity, criterion validity, and construct validity Internal validity : the elimination of alternative hypotheses such as history, maturation, testing effects, regression, instrumentation, subject selection, and mortality; relates to validity of instruments such as content validity, criterion validity, and construct validity External validity : the generalizability of findings and the representativeness of subjects, tests, and testing situation. External validity : the generalizability of findings and the representativeness of subjects, tests, and testing situation. Reliability : consistency, stability, and dependability of a test or testing procedure. Reliability : consistency, stability, and dependability of a test or testing procedure. Objectivity : outcome of establishing internal and external validity and reliability; based on distance between researcher and subjects mediated by protocol, theory, and instrumentation Objectivity : outcome of establishing internal and external validity and reliability; based on distance between researcher and subjects mediated by protocol, theory, and instrumentation

5. Definitions of Attributes QUALITATIVE Credibility : "faithful descriptions or interpretations of a human experience of the people, when others can recognize the experience by reading about it Credibility : "faithful descriptions or interpretations of a human experience of the people, when others can recognize the experience by reading about it Fittingness : when findings "fit" into contexts outside the study situation and when the audience views the findings as meaningful and applicable in terms of their own experience Fittingness : when findings "fit" into contexts outside the study situation and when the audience views the findings as meaningful and applicable in terms of their own experience Auditability : when another researcher can clearly follow the "decision trail" used by the investigator, another researcher could arrive at the same or comparable but not contradictory conclusions given the researcher's data, perspective, and situation Auditability : when another researcher can clearly follow the "decision trail" used by the investigator, another researcher could arrive at the same or comparable but not contradictory conclusions given the researcher's data, perspective, and situation Confirmability : when auditability, fittingness, and credibility have been established based on engagement between researcher and subjects Valuing subjectivity rather than objectivity Confirmability : when auditability, fittingness, and credibility have been established based on engagement between researcher and subjects Valuing subjectivity rather than objectivity - the subjective involvement of investigators with their subjects - emphasis on subjective reality or the meanings subjects give to and derive from their life experiences

6. How To Achieve Auditability researcher’s interest in the subject matter of the study researcher’s interest in the subject matter of the study how the researcher views the thing studied how the researcher views the thing studied specific purpose(s) of the study specific purpose(s) of the study Established pieces of evidence came to be included in the study and how they were approached Established pieces of evidence came to be included in the study and how they were approached impact the subjects or evidence and the researcher(s) had on each other impact the subjects or evidence and the researcher(s) had on each other data collection technique, how long data collection lasted data collection technique, how long data collection lasted nature of the setting(s) in which data were collected nature of the setting(s) in which data were collected data transformed for analysis, interpretation, and presentation data transformed for analysis, interpretation, and presentation various elements of the data weighted various elements of the data weighted inclusiveness and exclusiveness of the categories developed to contain the data inclusiveness and exclusiveness of the categories developed to contain the data specific techniques used to determine the truth value and applicability of the data specific techniques used to determine the truth value and applicability of the data

7. How To Achieve Credibility and Fittingness check for the representativeness of the data as a whole and of coding categories and examples used to reduce and present the data check for the representativeness of the data as a whole and of coding categories and examples used to reduce and present the data triangulate across data sources and data collection procedures to determine the congruence of findings among them triangulate across data sources and data collection procedures to determine the congruence of findings among them check that descriptions, explanations, or theories about the data contain the typical and atypical elements of the data, check that descriptions, explanations, or theories about the data contain the typical and atypical elements of the data, deliberately try to discount or disprove a conclusion drawn from the data deliberately try to discount or disprove a conclusion drawn from the data obtain validation from the subjects themselves obtain validation from the subjects themselves extensive contact with subjects and independent analysis of data by another researcher can serve to establish credibility extensive contact with subjects and independent analysis of data by another researcher can serve to establish credibility

8. The Qualitative Paradigm paradigm is essentially a worldview, a whole framework of beliefs, values and methods within which research takes place and researchers work paradigm is essentially a worldview, a whole framework of beliefs, values and methods within which research takes place and researchers work Cresswell (1994) - "qualitative study is defined as an inquiry process of understanding a social or human problem, based on building a complex, holistic picture, formed with words, reporting detailed views of informants, and conducted in a natural setting” Cresswell (1994) - "qualitative study is defined as an inquiry process of understanding a social or human problem, based on building a complex, holistic picture, formed with words, reporting detailed views of informants, and conducted in a natural setting”

9. POEM – Paradigm Framework P - Philosophy P - Philosophy O - Ontology O - Ontology E - Epistemology E - Epistemology M - Methodology M - Methodology (Source: University of Sheffield)

10. Quantitative Scientific Paradigm P - Scientific materialism is philosophy P - Scientific materialism is philosophy O - Laws of nature is ontology O - Laws of nature is ontology E - Measurable and observable ‘proof’ is epistemology E - Measurable and observable ‘proof’ is epistemology M - Experiment, large scale data collection, quantitative analysis is methodology M - Experiment, large scale data collection, quantitative analysis is methodology

11. Humanistic/Post-Modern Paradigm (Qualitative) P - Homocentric reality as a social construct, contextual verities P - Homocentric reality as a social construct, contextual verities O - The nature of the psyche, of perception, creativity, intelligence O - The nature of the psyche, of perception, creativity, intelligence E - Self verified evidence, grounded theory, recorded testimony E - Self verified evidence, grounded theory, recorded testimony M - Phenomenology, ethnography, depth interviews M - Phenomenology, ethnography, depth interviews

12. Key Distinctions -Qualitative Versus Quantitative Research Key Distinctions -Qualitative Versus Quantitative Research Words and numbers Words and numbers - Qualitative research places emphasis on understanding through looking closely at people's words, actions and records, while quantitative approach to research looks past these words, actions and records to their mathematical significance - Qualitative research examines the patterns of meaning which emerge from the data and these are often presented in the participants' own words Perspectival (subjective) versus objective views Perspectival (subjective) versus objective views Discovery versus proof Discovery versus proof - The goal of qualitative research is to discover patterns which emerge after close observation, careful documentation, and thoughtful analysis of the research topic, not sweeping generalizations but contextual findings and basic to the philosophic underpinning of the qualitative approach

13. Definitions of Quali Research - Reprise Denzin and Lincoln (1994) multi-method in focus, involving an interpretive, naturalistic approach to its subject matter in its natural settings, attempting to make sense of or interpret phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them multi-method in focus, involving an interpretive, naturalistic approach to its subject matter in its natural settings, attempting to make sense of or interpret phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them involves the studied use and collection of a variety of empirical materials case study, personal experience, introspective, life story interview, observational, historical, interactional, and visual texts-that describe routine and problematic moments and meaning in individuals' lives involves the studied use and collection of a variety of empirical materials case study, personal experience, introspective, life story interview, observational, historical, interactional, and visual texts-that describe routine and problematic moments and meaning in individuals' lives Cresswell (1994) an inquiry process of understanding based on distinct methodological traditions of inquiry that explore a social or human problem and building a complex, holistic picture, analyzes words, reports detailed views of informants, and conducts the study in a natural setting an inquiry process of understanding based on distinct methodological traditions of inquiry that explore a social or human problem and building a complex, holistic picture, analyzes words, reports detailed views of informants, and conducts the study in a natural setting

14. Characteristics of Qualitative Research Characteristics of Qualitative Research exploratory and descriptive focus exploratory and descriptive focus emergent design emergent design data collection in the natural setting data collection in the natural setting emphasis on ‘human-as-instrument’ emphasis on ‘human-as-instrument’ qualitative methods of data collection qualitative methods of data collection early and on-going inductive analysis early and on-going inductive analysis

15. Five Quali Research Types (Cresswell, 1994) Biography Biography Phenomenology Phenomenology Grounded Theory Grounded Theory Ethnography Ethnography Case Study Case Study

16. Biography collect extensive information from and about the subject collect extensive information from and about the subject understand historical, contextual material to position the subject within the larger trends in society or in the culture understand historical, contextual material to position the subject within the larger trends in society or in the culture determine particular stories, slant, or angle that "works" in writing a biography and to uncover the "figure under the carpet" (Edel, 1984) that explains the multilayered context of a life determine particular stories, slant, or angle that "works" in writing a biography and to uncover the "figure under the carpet" (Edel, 1984) that explains the multilayered context of a life use interpretive approach, needs to be able to bring himself or herself into the narrative use interpretive approach, needs to be able to bring himself or herself into the narrative

17. Phenomenology a solid grounding in the philosophical precepts of phenomenology a solid grounding in the philosophical precepts of phenomenology participants in the study need to be carefully chosen to be individuals who have experienced the phenomenon participants in the study need to be carefully chosen to be individuals who have experienced the phenomenon bracketing personal experiences by the researcher may be difficult bracketing personal experiences by the researcher may be difficult decide how and in what way his or her personal experiences will be introduced into the study decide how and in what way his or her personal experiences will be introduced into the study

18. Grounded Theory set aside, as much as possible, theoretical ideas or notions so that the analytic, substantive theory can emerge set aside, as much as possible, theoretical ideas or notions so that the analytic, substantive theory can emerge inductive nature of this form of qualitative inquiry, recognize systematic approach to research with specific steps in data analysis inductive nature of this form of qualitative inquiry, recognize systematic approach to research with specific steps in data analysis difficulty of determining when categories are saturated or when the theory is sufficiently detailed difficulty of determining when categories are saturated or when the theory is sufficiently detailed recognize the primary outcome of this study is a theory with specific components: a central phenomenon, causal conditions, strategies, conditions and context, and consequences recognize the primary outcome of this study is a theory with specific components: a central phenomenon, causal conditions, strategies, conditions and context, and consequences

19. Ethnography grounding in cultural anthropology and the meaning of a social-cultural system as well as the concepts typically explored grounding in cultural anthropology and the meaning of a social-cultural system as well as the concepts typically explored data collection is extensive, involving prolonged time in the field data collection is extensive, involving prolonged time in the field narratives are written in a literary, almost storytelling approach, an approach that may limit the audience for the work and may be challenging for authors accustomed to traditional approaches to writing social and human science research narratives are written in a literary, almost storytelling approach, an approach that may limit the audience for the work and may be challenging for authors accustomed to traditional approaches to writing social and human science research researcher will "go native" and be unable to complete the study or be compromised in the study, one issue in the complex array of fieldwork venture into an unfamiliar cultural group or system researcher will "go native" and be unable to complete the study or be compromised in the study, one issue in the complex array of fieldwork venture into an unfamiliar cultural group or system

20. Case Study identify the case decided on what bounded system to study, recognizing that several might be possible candidates for this selection identify the case decided on what bounded system to study, recognizing that several might be possible candidates for this selection consider whether to study a single case or multiple cases consider whether to study a single case or multiple cases more than one case dilutes the overall analysis; the more cases an individual studies, the greater the lack of depth in any single case more than one case dilutes the overall analysis; the more cases an individual studies, the greater the lack of depth in any single case choosing multiple cases, the issue becomes "How many?"- researcher chooses no more than four cases choosing multiple cases, the issue becomes "How many?"- researcher chooses no more than four cases a large number of cases is for generalizability, a term that holds little meaning for most qualitative researchers a large number of cases is for generalizability, a term that holds little meaning for most qualitative researchers

21. Qualitative Methods of Data Collection People’s words and actions represent the data of qualitative inquiry and this requires methods that allow the researcher to capture language and behavior Observation – both participant and direct Observation – both participant and direct In-depth interviews In-depth interviews Group Interviews Group Interviews Collection of relevant documents Collection of relevant documents Photographs and video Tapes Photographs and video Tapes

22. Interview one of the major sources of data collection, and it is also one of the most difficult ones to get right., a form of discourse one of the major sources of data collection, and it is also one of the most difficult ones to get right., a form of discourse Mischler (1986) – interview features reflect the distinctive structure and aims of interviewing, namely, that it is discourse shaped and organized by asking and answering questions; a joint product of what interviewees and interviewers talk about together and how they talk with each other; a representation of that talk Mischler (1986) – interview features reflect the distinctive structure and aims of interviewing, namely, that it is discourse shaped and organized by asking and answering questions; a joint product of what interviewees and interviewers talk about together and how they talk with each other; a representation of that talk

23. Types of Interview Probes 1. Detail-oriented probes. follow-up questions are designed to fill out the picture of whatever it is we are trying to understand; out of curiosity: Who was with you? Who was with you? What was it like being there What was it like being there Where did you go then? Where did you go then? When did this happen in your life? When did this happen in your life? How are you going to try to deal with the situation? How are you going to try to deal with the situation? 2. Elaboration probes. designed to encourage the interviewee to tell us more; ask interviewee to simply continue talking Tell me more about that. Tell me more about that. Can you give me an example of what you are talking about? Can you give me an example of what you are talking about? I think I understand what you mean. I think I understand what you mean. Talk more about that, will you? Talk more about that, will you? I'd like to hear you talk more about that. I'd like to hear you talk more about that. 3. Clarification probes. unsure of what the interviewee is talking about, what she or he means; the interviewer can gently ask for clarification, making sure to communicate that it is the interviewer's difficulty in understanding and not the fault of the interviewee I'm not sure I understand what you mean by 'hanging out'. Can you help me understand what that means? I'm not sure I understand what you mean by 'hanging out'. Can you help me understand what that means? I'm having trouble understanding the problem you've described. Can you talk a little more about that? I'm having trouble understanding the problem you've described. Can you talk a little more about that? I want to make sure I understand what you mean. Would you describe it for me again? I want to make sure I understand what you mean. Would you describe it for me again? I'm sorry. I don't quite get. Tell me again, would you? I'm sorry. I don't quite get. Tell me again, would you?

24. Good Qualitative Research Use tradition of inquiry and make researcher identifies, studies, and employs one or more traditions of inquiry Use tradition of inquiry and make researcher identifies, studies, and employs one or more traditions of inquiry Begin with a focus and start with a single idea Begin with a focus and start with a single idea Understand problem, not a causal relationship of variables or a comparison of groups; although relationships might evolve or comparisons might be made these emerge late in the study after describing single idea Understand problem, not a causal relationship of variables or a comparison of groups; although relationships might evolve or comparisons might be made these emerge late in the study after describing single idea Use detailed methods, a rigorous approach to data collection, data analysis, and report writing Use detailed methods, a rigorous approach to data collection, data analysis, and report writing Verify the accuracy of the account using one of the many procedures for verification Verify the accuracy of the account using one of the many procedures for verification Write persuasively so that the reader experiences "being there" Write persuasively so that the reader experiences "being there" Analyze data using multiple levels of abstraction; present studies in stages (e.g., the multiple themes that can be combined into larger themes or perspectives) or layer analyses from the particular to the general reflecting all the complexities that exist in real life Analyze data using multiple levels of abstraction; present studies in stages (e.g., the multiple themes that can be combined into larger themes or perspectives) or layer analyses from the particular to the general reflecting all the complexities that exist in real life Engage the reader Engage the reader