1. Chapter 24 The Chemistry of Life 24.6 Metabolism 24.1 A Basis for Life
24.2 Carbohydrates
24.3 Amino Acids and Their Polymers
24.4 Lipids
24.5 Nucleic Acids
24.6 Metabolism
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2. Why does a hummingbird eat so much?
CHEMISTRY & YOU
Why does a hummingbird eat so much?
Hummingbirds have a high body temperature, a fast heart rate, and a fast breathing rate. All these factors affect the hummingbird’s metabolism.
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3. What is the function of ATP in living cells?
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4. All living things need energy to function.
ATP
All living things need energy to function.
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP), shown below, is a molecule that transmits this energy in the cells of living organisms.
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5. ATP
The function of ATP can be compared to a belt connecting an electric motor to a pump.
The motor generates energy capable of operating the pump.
But if a belt does not connect the motor to the pump, the energy produced by the motor is wasted.
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6. ATP
In living cells, ATP is the energy carrier between spontaneous reactions that release energy and nonspontaneous reactions that use energy.
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7. ATP
Recall that oxidation reactions, such as the oxidation of glucose in a living cell, are spontaneous reactions that release energy.
This energy can be captured when adenosine diphosphate (ADP) condenses with an inorganic phosphate group to become ATP.
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8. ATP
The addition of a phosphate group, called phosphorylation, occurs during certain biochemical reactions.
The formation of ATP efficiently captures energy produced by the oxidation reactions in living cells.
Adenosine diphosphate (ADP)
Inorganic phosphate (Pi)
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
Water
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9. The reverse happens when ATP is hydrolyzed back to ADP.
Every mole of ATP produced by the phosphorylation of ADP stores about 30.5 kJ of energy.
The reverse happens when ATP is hydrolyzed back to ADP.
Every mole of ATP that is hydrolyzed back to ADP releases about 30.5 kJ of energy.
Adenosine diphosphate (ADP)
Inorganic phosphate (Pi)
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
Water
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10. ATP
Because of its ability to capture energy from one process and transmit it to another, ATP is sometimes referred to as a high-energy compound.
However, the energy produced by the breakdown of ATP to ADP is not particularly high for the breaking of the covalent bond.
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11. ATP
ATP is important because it occupies an intermediate position in the energetics of the cell.
It can be formed by using the energy obtained from a few higher-energy oxidation reactions.
The energy that is contained in the bonds of ATP can then be used to drive other cellular processes.
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12. How does ATP provide energy to nonspontaneous processes in the cell?
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13. How does ATP provide energy to nonspontaneous processes in the cell?
ATP stores energy when it is made from the phosphorylization of ADP. When ATP is hydrolyzed to ADP, it releases this energy.
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14. Metabolism Reactions
Metabolism Reactions
What happens to biological molecules and energy during catabolism and anabolism?
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15. Metabolism Reactions
Thousands of chemical reactions take place in the cells of a living organism.
The entire set of chemical reactions carried out by an organism is known as the organism’s metabolism.
The reactions that occur in metabolism can be divided into two main processes, catabolism and anabolism.
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16. Metabolism Reactions
Catabolism
In metabolism, unneeded cellular components and the nutrients in food are broken down into simpler compounds by chemical reactions collectively called catabolism.
Catabolic reactions release energy as well as produce simple compounds.
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17. Metabolism Reactions
Catabolism
The degradation of complex biological molecules such as carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids during catabolism provides the energy and the building blocks for the construction of new biological compounds needed by the cell.
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18. Metabolism Reactions
Catabolism
Through the formation of ATP, catabolic reactions provide the energy for such needs as body motion and the transport of nutrients to cells where they are required.
The oxidation reactions of catabolism also provide energy in the form of heat.
These reactions help keep your body temperature constant at 37°C.
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19. Why does a hummingbird eat so much?
CHEMISTRY & YOU
Why does a hummingbird eat so much?
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20. Why does a hummingbird eat so much?
CHEMISTRY & YOU
Why does a hummingbird eat so much?
A great deal of energy is required to maintain a hummingbird’s high body temperature and rapid heartbeat, so a hummingbird must consume a great deal of food.
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21. Metabolism Reactions
Catabolism
Glucose (6-carbon chain)
2 Pyruvate ions; CH3COCO2 (3-carbon fragments)
2 Acetate ions, CH3CO2 (2-carbon fragments)
2 Carbon dioxide molecules, CO2 (1-carbon fragments)
4 Carbon dioxide molecules
The complete oxidation of glucose to carbon dioxide and water is one of the most important energy-yielding processes of catabolism.
The complete oxidation actually involves many reactions that are not shown.
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22. Metabolism Reactions
Catabolism
The combustion of one mole of glucose to six moles of carbon dioxide and six moles of water, either by fire or by oxidation in a living cell, produces 2.82 × 103 kJ of energy.
Cells that use oxygen may produce up to 38 moles of ATP by capturing the energy released by the complete oxidation of a single mole of glucose!
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23. Metabolism Reactions
Catabolism
The large amount of ATP produced from the oxidation of glucose makes it the likeliest mode of energy production for most kinds of cells.
In fact, if glucose is available, brain cells use no other source of carbon compounds for energy production.
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24. Metabolism Reactions
Catabolism
The need for energy and building blocks is the reason why all organisms, such as this field mouse, require food.
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25. Metabolism Reactions
Anabolism
Some of the simple compounds produced by catabolism are used to synthesize more-complex biological molecules—carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids—necessary for the health and growth of an organism.
The synthesis reactions of metabolism are called anabolism.
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26. Metabolism Reactions
Anabolism
Some of the simple compounds produced by catabolism are used to synthesize more-complex biological molecules—carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids—necessary for the health and growth of an organism.
The synthesis reactions of metabolism are called anabolism.
Unlike catabolism, which releases energy, anabolism uses energy.
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27. Metabolism Reactions
Anabolism
The figure below gives an overview of the relationship between catabolism and anabolism.
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28. Metabolism Reactions
Anabolism
Nutrients and unneeded cell components are degraded to simpler components by the reactions of catabolism.
The oxidative reactions of catabolism yield energy captured in the formation of ATP.
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29. Metabolism Reactions
Anabolism
In anabolism, the products and the energy of catabolism are used to make new compounds and cell parts needed for cellular life and growth.
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30. Metabolism Reactions
Anabolism
You know that the energy produced by physical and chemical processes is of little value unless the energy can be captured to do work.
If it is not captured, the energy is lost as heat.
The chemical energy produced by catabolism must have some means of being used for the chemical work of anabolism.
The ATP molecule is that means of transmitting energy.
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31. What is the relationship between catabolism and anabolism?
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32. What is the relationship between catabolism and anabolism?
Catabolism makes the energy that the anabolism reactions use to make new products.
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33. The Nitrogen Cycle
The Nitrogen Cycle
How do nitrogen-fixing bacteria provide plants with a usable form of nitrogen?
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34. The Nitrogen Cycle
Biological molecules taken into an organism’s body as nutrients in food are broken down during catabolism.
Food contains carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, vitamins, and minerals.
These nutrients are composed mainly of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms.
Many biological compounds, such as proteins, contain nitrogen as well.
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35. The Nitrogen Cycle
Although Earth’s atmosphere is 78 percent nitrogen gas, no animals and only a few plants can use this form of nitrogen to make nitrogen-containing compounds.
However, certain bacteria can convert nitrogen gas into usable forms in a process called nitrogen fixation.
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36. The Nitrogen Cycle
Nitrogen-fixing bacteria reduce atmospheric nitrogen (N2(g)) to ammonia (NH3(g)), a water-soluble form of nitrogen that can be used by plants.
In soil and biological fluids, most ammonia is present as ammonium ions.
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37. The Nitrogen Cycle
Plants incorporate ammonia into biological nitrogen compounds such as proteins, nucleic acids, and ATP.
Because animals cannot synthesize these compounds, they get them by eating plants or other animals that eat plants.
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38. When plants and animals die, they decay with the aid of bacteria.
The Nitrogen Cycle
When plants and animals die, they decay with the aid of bacteria.
Decaying matter returns nitrogen to the soil as ammonia, nitrite ions (NO2–), or nitrate ions (NO3–).
Nitrogen gas is returned to the atmosphere.
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39. The flow of nitrogen between the atmosphere
The Nitrogen Cycle
The flow of nitrogen between the atmosphere
and Earth
is the
nitrogen
cycle.
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40. Biological Nitrogen Fixation
The Nitrogen Cycle
Biological Nitrogen Fixation
Nitrogen-fixing bacteria are of two types: free-living and symbiotic.
Free-living bacteria lead an independent existence in soil.
Symbiotic bacteria, such as Rhizobium, live in a mutually beneficial arrangement with plants.
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41. Biological Nitrogen Fixation
The Nitrogen Cycle
Biological Nitrogen Fixation
Symbiotic bacteria live in nodules on the roots of legumes, such as alfalfa, clover, peas, and beans.
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42. Industrial Nitrogen Fixation
The Nitrogen Cycle
Industrial Nitrogen Fixation
Modern agriculture uses an enormous quantity of nitrogen, which plays a role in the nitrogen cycle.
For the past several years, the daily amount of atmospheric nitrogen fixed by industrial processes in the production of fertilizers has probably exceeded the amount fixed by living organisms.
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43. Industrial Nitrogen Fixation
The Nitrogen Cycle
Industrial Nitrogen Fixation
Nitrogen fertilizers enter the biosphere when they are taken up by plants.
In addition, a small amount of atmospheric nitrogen is fixed by lightning discharges, which produce the soluble nitrogen oxides (NO, NO2, N2O4, and N2O5).
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44. What form of nitrogen is present in the atmosphere
What form of nitrogen is present in the atmosphere? What form of nitrogen are plants able to use?
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45. What form of nitrogen is present in the atmosphere
What form of nitrogen is present in the atmosphere? What form of nitrogen are plants able to use?
Nitrogen in the atmosphere is of the form N2. Plants can use ammonia, NH3.
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46. Key Concepts
In living cells, ATP is the energy carrier between the spontaneous reactions that release and the nonspontaneous reactions that use energy.
The degradation of biological molecules during catabolism provides the energy and the building blocks for making new compounds. In anabolism, new compounds needed for cellular life and growth are made from the products of catabolism.
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47. Key Concepts
Nitrogen-fixing bacteria reduce atmospheric nitrogen to ammonia, a water-soluble form of nitrogen that can be used by plants.
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48. Glossary Terms
adenosine triphosphate (ATP): a molecule that transmits the energy needed by cells of all living things
metabolism: all the chemical reactions carried out by an organism; includes energy- producing (catabolism) reactions and energy- absorbing (anabolism) reactions
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49. Glossary Terms
catabolism: the reactions in living cells in which substances are broken down and energy is produced
anabolism: synthesis processes in the metabolism of cells; these processes usually require the expenditure of energy
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50. Chemistry as the Central Science
BIG IDEA
Chemistry as the Central Science
Catabolic reactions break down biological molecules to provide energy and building blocks for the cell.
Anabolic reactions build biological molecules to store energy and make new cell parts.
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51. END OF 24.6
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