1. ELAINE N. MARIEB EIGHTH EDITION 2 Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings PowerPoint ® Lecture Slide Presentation by Jerry L. Cook, Sam Houston University ESSENTIALS OF HUMAN ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY PART A Basic Chemistry

2. Matter  Matter – anything that occupies space and has mass (weight)  Matter exists as a solid, liquid, or gas  Examples:  Solid – bones, teeth  Liquid – blood plasma, interstitial fluid  Gas – air

3. Phase changes  Matter can be changed physically or chemically  Physical changes – do not alter the basic nature of a substance  Example: ice melting, cutting food into smaller pieces  Chemical changes – do alter the composition of the substance  Example: fermenting grapes to make wine, digestion of food

4. Energy  Energy – the ability to do work  Kinetic energy – movement energy  Potential energy – inactive or stored energy

5. Forms of energy  Chemical energy – from foods we eat  Electrical energy – electrical currents found in the body  Mechanical energy – muscles in your body  Radiant energy – light energy in your eyes, UV waves for a suntan

6. Composition of Matter  Elements  Fundamental units of matter  96% of the body is made from four elements  Carbon (C)  Oxygen (O)  Hydrogen (H)  Nitrogen (N)  Many more elements occur in smaller or trace amounts

7. Atoms  Building blocks of elements  Elements are designated by a one or two letter chemical shorthand called a chemical symbol

8. Atomic Structure  Nucleus  Protons (p + )- positive  Neutrons (n 0 )- neutral  Outside of nucleus- found in orbitals  Electrons (e - )- negative Figure 2.1

9. Identifying Elements  Atomic number  Equal to the number of protons that the atoms contain  Equal to the number of electrons  Atomic mass number  Sum of the protons and neutrons

10. Protons, Neutrons & Electrons  # of protons=atomic number  # of electrons = atomic number  Number of protons and electrons are equal  # of neutrons = mass – protons

11. Isotopes and Atomic Weight  Isotopes  Have the same number of protons  Vary in number of neutrons Figure 2.3

12. Isotopes and Atomic Weight  Atomic weight  Close to mass number of most abundant isotope  Atomic weight reflects natural isotope variation

13. Radioactivity  Radioisotope  Heavy isotope  Tends to be unstable  Decomposes to more stable isotope  Radioactivity  Process of spontaneous atomic decay

14. Molecules and Compounds  Molecule – two or more like atoms combined chemically  Compound – two or more different atoms combined chemically

15. Chemical Reactions  Atoms are united by chemical bonds  Atoms dissociate from other atoms when chemical bonds are broken

16. Electrons and Bonding  Electrons occupy energy levels called electron shells  Electrons closest to the nucleus are most strongly attracted  Each shell has distinct properties  Number of electrons has an upper limit  Shells closest to nucleus fill first

17. Electrons and Bonding  1 st level has 2 electrons  2 nd level has 8 electrons  3 rd level has 18 electrons  Bonding involves interactions between electrons in the outer shell (valence shell)  Full valence shells do not form bonds

18. Inert Elements  Have complete valence shells and are stable  Rule of 8s Figure 2.4a

19. Reactive Elements  Valence shells are not full and are unstable  Tend to gain, lose, or share electrons  Allows for bond formation, which produces stable valence Figure 2.4b

20. Chemical Bonds  Ionic Bonds  Form when electrons are completely transferred from one atom to another  Ions  Charged particles  Anions are negative  Cations are positive  Either donate or accept electrons Ionic bonds animation PRESS TO PLAY

21. Chemical Bonds  Covalent Bonds  Atoms become stable through shared electrons  Single covalent bonds share one electron  Double covalent bonds share two electrons Figure 2.6c

22. COVALENT BONDS ANIMATION Examples of Covalent Bonds Figure 2.6a–b PRESS TO PLAY

23. Figure 2.7 Polarity  Covalent bonded molecules  Some are non-polar  Electrically neutral as a molecule  Some are polar  Have a positive and negative side

24. Chemical Bonds  Hydrogen bonds  Weak chemical bonds  Hydrogen is attracted to negative portion of polar molecule  Provides attraction between molecules

25. Patterns of Chemical Reactions  Synthesis reaction (A+B  AB)  Atoms or molecules combine  Energy is absorbed for bond formation  Decomposition reaction (AB  A+B)  Molecule is broken down  Chemical energy is released

26. Synthesis and Decomposition Reactions Figure 2.9a–b

27. Figure 2.9c Patterns of Chemical Reactions  Exchange reaction (AB  AC+B)  Involves both synthesis and decomposition reactions  Switch is made between molecule parts and different molecules are made

28. Biochemistry: Essentials for Life  Organic compounds  Contain carbon  Most are covalently bonded  Examples:  Carbohydrates: glucose  Lipids: fats, steroids, waxes  Proteins: enzymes, antibodies  Nucleic Acids: DNA & RNA

29. Biochemistry: Essentials for Life Inorganic compounds  Lack carbon  Tend to be simpler compounds  Examples:  Water  Salts  Some acids & bases

30. Important Inorganic Compounds  Water  Most abundant inorganic compounds  Accounts for two-thirds of body weight

31. Properties of Water  Vital properties  High heat capacity: absorbs and releases large amounts of heat  Polarity/solvent properties: water is the universal solvent  Chemical reactivity- water is a reactant in chemical reaction  Cushioning – water cushions around the brain, joints, and around a fetus

32. Part of Solutions  Solvent – water or other liquid  Solutes – smaller amounts mixed into the solvent  Solution – mixture of solvent and solute

33. Important Inorganic Compounds  Salts  Easily dissociate into ions in the presence of water  Vital to many body functions  Include electrolytes which conduct electrical currents

34. Important Inorganic Compounds  Acids  Can release detectable hydrogen ions  Bases  Proton acceptors  Neutralization reaction  Acids and bases react to form water and a salt

35. pH  Measures relative concentration of hydrogen ions  pH 7 = neutral  pH below 7 = acidic  pH above 7 = basic  Buffers: chemicals that can regulate pH change Figure 2.11

36. Important Organic Compounds  Carbohydrates  Contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen  Include sugars and starches  Classified according to size

37. Types of carbohydrates  Monosaccharides  Simple sugar  Made of 3 to 7 carbon atoms  Examples:  Glucose  Fructose  Galactose  Ribose  Deoxyribose

38. Types of carbohydrates  Disaccharides  Double sugars formed when two simple sugars are joined by a synthesis reaction called dehydration synthesis  Examples:  Sucrose – cane sugar  Lactose – milk sugar  Maltose – malt sugar

39. Types of carbohydrates  Polysaccarides  Long branching chains of linked simple sugars  Large storage products  Examples:  Starch  Glycogen

40. Carbohydrates DISACCHARIDES ANIMATION Figure 2.12a–b PRESS TO PLAY

41. Carbohydrates POLYSACCHARIDES ANIMATION Figure 2.12c PRESS TO PLAY

42. Important Organic Compounds  Lipids  Contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen  Carbon and hydrogen outnumber oxygen  Insoluble in water LIPIDS ANIMATION PRESS TO PLAY

43. Lipids  Common lipids in the human body  Neutral fats (triglycerides)  Found in fat deposits, where they insulate and protect from heat loss and bumps  Composed of fatty acids and glycerol  Source of stored energy

44. Lipids  Phospholipids  Form cell membranes, lipid bilayer  Allows lipid bilayer to be selective about what enters and leaves  Steroids  Include cholesterol, bile salts, vitamin D, and some hormones

45. Lipids  Steroids  Include cholesterol, bile salts, vitamin D, and some hormones

46. Lipids Figure 2.14a–b

47. Cholesterol  The basis for all steroids made in the body Figure 2.14c

48. Protein Animations  Click below to explore the levels of protein structure INTRODUCTION TO PROTEIN STRUCTURE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE © PROTEINS: PRIMARY STRUCTURE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE © PROTEINS: SECONDARY STRUCTURE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE © PROTEINS: TERTIARY STRUCTURE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE © PROTEINS: QUATERNARY STRUCTURE PRESS TO PLAY PRESS TO PLAY PRESS TO PLAY PRESS TO PLAY PRESS TO PLAY

49. Important Organic Compounds  Proteins  Contain carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and sometimes sulfur  Make up 50% of organic matter in the body  Made of amino acids  building blocks of proteins are amino acids  about 20 varieties of amino acids found in proteins  the sequence which they are bound together produces proteins that vary in structure and function

50. Proteins  Act as enzymes, hormones, and antibodies  Provides for construction materials for body tissues  Plays a vital role in cell function CHEMISTRY OF LIFE © PROTEINS: ENZYME ANIMATION PRESS TO PLAY

51. Types of Proteins  Fibrous or structural proteins provide strength to body tissues  Examples:  Collagen - in bones, cartilage, tendons  Keratin - in hair and nails

52. Types of Proteins  Globular or functional proteins do things and are important in almost all biological process  Examples:  Antibodies - provide immunity  Hormones - regulate growth and development  Enzymes - catalysts that regulate every chemical reaction

53. Enzymes  Act as biological catalysts  Increase the rate of chemical reactions  most enzymes end in the suffix -ase Figure 2.17

54. Important Organic Compounds  Nucleic Acids  make up the genes that provide the basic blueprint of life  nucleotides are the building blocks  3 parts - nitrogen-containing base, pentose sugar, and a phosphate group  Examples:  DNA and RNA

55. Nucleic Acids  Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)  Organized by complimentary bases to form double helix  Replicates before cell division  Provides instruction for every protein in the body Figure 2.18c

56. DNA  DNA is the genetic material found within the cell nucleus  has 2 functions:  1 - replicates itself before the cell divides  2 - provides instructions for building proteins in the body

57. RNA  RNA is located outside of the nucleus and carries out the orders for protein synthesis issued by DNA

58. Nucleotide bases DNA  A = Adenine binds to T= Thymine  G = Guanine binds to C = Cytosine  RNA  A = Adenine binds to U = Uracil  G = Guanine binds to C = Cytosine

59. Important Organic Compounds  Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)  Chemical energy used by all cells  Energy is released by breaking high energy phosphate bond  ATP is replenished by oxidation of food fuels

60. Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) Figure 2.19a

61. How ATP Drives Cellular Work Figure 2.20