1. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 11 Surveying the Stars

2. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. How do we measure stellar luminosities?

3. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Brightness of a star depends on both distance and luminosity.

4. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Luminosity: Amount of power a star radiates (energy per second = watts) Apparent brightness: Amount of starlight that reaches Earth (energy per second per square meter)

5. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Thought Question These two stars have about the same luminosity— which one appears brighter? A. Alpha Centauri B. The Sun

6. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Thought Question These two stars have about the same luminosity— which one appears brighter? A. Alpha Centauri B. The Sun

7. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Luminosity passing through each sphere is the same. Area of sphere: 4π (radius) 2 Divide luminosity by area to get brightness.

8. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. The relationship between apparent brightness and luminosity depends on distance: Luminosity Brightness = 4π (distance) 2 We can determine a star’s luminosity if we can measure its distance and apparent brightness: Luminosity = 4π (distance) 2  (Brightness)

9. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Thought Question How would the apparent brightness of Alpha Centauri change if it were three times farther away? A. It would be only 1/3 as bright. B. It would be only 1/6 as bright. C. It would be only 1/9 as bright. D. It would be three times as bright.

10. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Thought Question How would the apparent brightness of Alpha Centauri change if it were three times farther away? A. It would be only 1/3 as bright. B. It would be only 1/6 as bright. C. It would be only 1/9 as bright. D. It would be three times as bright.

11. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. So how far away are these stars?

12. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Parallax is the apparent shift in position of a nearby object against a background of more distant objects. Introduction to Parallax

13. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Apparent positions of the nearest stars shift by about an arcsecond as Earth orbits the Sun. Parallax of a Nearby Star

14. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. The parallax angle depends on distance. Parallax Angle as a Function of Distance

15. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Parallax is measured by comparing snapshots taken at different times and measuring the shift in angle to star. Measuring Parallax Angle

16. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

17. Parallax and Distance

18. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Most luminous stars: 10 6 L Sun Least luminous stars: 10 -4 L Sun (L Sun is luminosity of the Sun)

19. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. The Magnitude Scale

20. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. How do we measure stellar temperatures?

21. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Every object emits thermal radiation with a spectrum that depends on its temperature.

22. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. An object of fixed size grows more luminous as its temperature rises. Relationship Between Temperature and Luminosity

23. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Properties of Thermal Radiation 1.Hotter objects emit more light per unit area at all frequencies. 2.Hotter objects emit photons with a higher average energy.

24. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Hottest stars: ~50,000 K Coolest stars: ~3000 K (Sun’s surface is 5800 K)

25. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Solid Molecules Neutral Gas Ionized Gas (Plasma) Level of ionization also reveals a star’s temperature. 10 K 10 2 K 10 3 K 10 4 K 10 5 K 10 6 K

26. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Absorption lines in a star’s spectrum tell us its ionization level.

27. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Lines in a star’s spectrum correspond to a spectral type that reveals its temperature: (Hottest) O B A F G K M (Coolest)

28. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Thought Question Which of the stars below is hottest? A. M star B. F star C. A star D. K star

29. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Thought Question Which of the stars below is hottest? A. M star B. F star C. A star D. K star

30. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Pioneers of Stellar Classification Annie Jump Cannon and the “calculators” at Harvard laid the foundation of modern stellar classification.

31. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. How do we measure stellar masses?

32. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Orbit of a binary star system depends on the strength of gravity. Binary Star Orbits

33. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Types of Binary Star Systems Visual binary Eclipsing binary Spectroscopic binary About half of all stars are in binary systems.

34. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Visual Binary We can directly observe the orbital motions of these stars.

35. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Eclipsing Binary We can measure periodic eclipses.

36. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Spectroscopic Binary We determine the orbit by measuring Doppler shifts.

37. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Isaac Newton We measure mass using gravity. Direct mass measurements are possible only for stars in binary star systems. p = period a = average separation p 2 = a 3 4π 2 G (M 1 + M 2 )

38. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Need two out of three observables to measure mass: 1.Orbital period (p) 2.Orbital separation (a or r = radius) 3.Orbital velocity (v) For circular orbits, v = 2πr / p r M v

39. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Most massive stars: ~100M Sun Least massive stars: 0.08M Sun (M Sun is the mass of the Sun.)

40. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. What is the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram?

41. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Temperature Luminosity An H-R diagram plots the luminosities and temperatures of stars.

42. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Generating an H-R Diagram

43. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Most stars fall somewhere on the main sequence of the H-R diagram.

44. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Stars with lower T and higher L than main- sequence stars must have larger radii: giants and supergiants large radius

45. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. small radius Stars with higher T and lower L than main-sequence stars must have smaller radii: white dwarfs

46. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. A star’s full classification includes spectral type (line identities) and luminosity class (line shapes, related to the size of the star): I— supergiant II — bright giant III — giant IV — subgiant V — main sequence Examples:Sun — G2 V Sirius — A1 V Proxima Centauri — M5.5 V Betelgeuse — M2 I

47. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Temperature Luminosity H-R diagram depicts: Temperature Color Spectral type Luminosity Radius

48. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Which star is the hottest? A B C D

49. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Which star is the hottest? A A B C D

50. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Which star is the most luminous? A B C D

51. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Which star is the most luminous? C A B C D

52. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Which star is a main- sequence star? A B C D

53. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Which star is a main- sequence star? D A B C D

54. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Which star has the largest radius? A B C D

55. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Which star has the largest radius? C A B C D

56. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. What is the significance of the main sequence?

57. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Main-sequence stars are fusing hydrogen into helium in their cores, like the Sun. Luminous main- sequence stars are hot (blue). Less luminous ones are cooler (yellow or red).

58. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Mass measurements of main-sequence stars show that the hot, blue stars are much more massive than the cool, red ones. High-mass stars Low-mass stars

59. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. The mass of a normal, hydrogen-fusing star determines its luminosity and spectral type. High-mass stars Low-mass stars

60. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. The core temperature of a higher-mass star needs to be higher in order to balance gravity. A higher core temperature boosts the fusion rate, leading to greater luminosity. Hydrostatic Equilibrium

61. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Stellar Properties Review Luminosity: from brightness and distance 10 -4 L Sun – 10 6 L Sun Temperature: from color and spectral type 3000 K – 50,000 K Mass: from period (p) and average separation (a) of binary-star orbit 0.08M Sun – 100M Sun

62. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Luminosity: from brightness and distance 10 -4 L Sun – 10 6 L Sun Temperature: from color and spectral type 3000 K – 50,000 K Mass: from period (p) and average separation (a) of binary-star orbit 0.08M Sun – 100M Sun (0.08M Sun ) (100M Sun ) (0.08M Sun )

63. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Mass and Lifetime Sun’s life expectancy: 10 billion years

64. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Mass and Lifetime Sun’s life expectancy: 10 billion years Until core hydrogen (10% of total) is used up

65. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Mass and Lifetime Sun’s life expectancy: 10 billion years Life expectancy of a 10M Sun star: 10 times as much fuel, uses it 10 4 times as fast 10 million years ~ 10 billion years × 10/10 4 Until core hydrogen (10% of total) is used up

66. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Mass and Lifetime Sun’s life expectancy: 10 billion years Life expectancy of a 10M Sun star: 10 times as much fuel, uses it 10 4 times as fast 10 million years ~ 10 billion years × 10/10 4 Life expectancy of a 0.1M Sun star: 0.1 times as much fuel, uses it 0.01 times as fast 100 billion years ~ 10 billion years × 0.1/0.01 Until core hydrogen (10% of total) is used up

67. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Main-Sequence Star Summary High-mass: High luminosity Short-lived Large radius Blue Low-mass: Low luminosity Long-lived Small radius Red

68. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. What are giants, supergiants, and white dwarfs?

69. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Off the Main Sequence Stellar properties depend on both mass and age: those that have finished fusing H to He in their cores are no longer on the main sequence. All stars become larger and redder after exhausting their core hydrogen: giants and supergiants. Most stars end up small and white after fusion has ceased: white dwarfs.

70. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Relationship Between Main-Sequence Stellar Masses and Location on H-R Diagram

71. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Giants and supergiants are far larger than main-sequence stars and white dwarfs.

72. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Temperature Luminosity Which star is most like our Sun? A B C D

73. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Temperature Luminosity Which star is most like our Sun? B A B C D

74. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Temperature Luminosity Which of these stars will have changed the least 10 billion years from now? A B C D

75. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Temperature Luminosity Which of these stars will have changed the least 10 billion years from now? C A B C D

76. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Temperature Luminosity Which of these stars can be no more than 10 million years old? A B C D

77. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Temperature Luminosity Which of these stars can be no more than 10 million years old? A A B C D

78. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. What are the two types of star clusters?

79. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Open cluster: A few thousand loosely packed stars

80. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Globular cluster: Up to a million or more stars in a dense ball bound together by gravity

81. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. How do we measure the age of a star cluster?

82. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Massive blue stars die first, followed by white, yellow, orange, and red stars. Visual Representation of a Star Cluster Evolving

83. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Pleiades now has no stars with a life expectancy less than around 100 million years. Main-sequence turnoff

84. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. The main- sequence turnoff point of a cluster tells us its age.

85. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. To determine accurate ages, we compare models of stellar evolution to the cluster data. Using the H-R Diagram to Determine the Age of a Star Cluster

86. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Detailed modeling of the oldest globular clusters reveals that they are about 13 billion years old.