1. Language variation and change Kuiper and Allan Chapter 1.7

2. What is a language? Does every speaker of a language share identical rule systems with every other speaker? –Obviously not. –You and I speak differently, if you are from Africa and I am from Hong Kong.

3. Language changes over time English was first spoken in England about AD700. Those who spoke English were a group of tribes from the European continent. The English spoken then is incomprehensible to us now.

4. Language varies in geographic space When English was first spoken in England it was spoken differently in different parts of England. Different tribes settled in Northumbria, in the centre of English, in Kent and in the southwest. They spoke mutually intelligible dialects of English.

5. Contemporary variation in geographic space There are many different Englishes spoken around the world. –British Isles Englishes Welsh English, Scots English, Irish English –North American Englishes –Southern Hemisphere Englishes Australian, South African, New Zealand

6. New Englishes African Caribbean South Asian –India, Pakistan, Bangladesh South East Asian –Hong Kong, Singapore, Malaysia

7. Language varies in social space In the same society not everyone speaks English the same way. –Social stratification –Women and men –Young and old –Formal and informal

8. Linguistic variables Both variation and changes can be tracked by looking at linguistic variables. –A variable is a different way of saying the same thing. e.g. am not vs aren’t I ain’t done nothing vs I haven’t done anything

9. Kinds of linguistic variables Variables potentially exist in all areas of a language –Words: sofa vs couch –Sounds: singin vs singing –Sentences: he do be coming vs he is coming