1. Bell Work 2-23-16 DNA is a double helix in which two strands are wound around each other. Each strand is made up of a chain of nucleotides. The two strands are held together by ________ bonds between adenine & _________ and between guanine & ______________. Held together by Hydrogen bonds Adenine & Thymine Guanine & Cytosine

2. Bell Work 2-22-16 DNA is made up of nucleotides. Each nucleotide has three parts: 1)A deoxyribose molecule (5 carbon sugar) 2)A phosphate group 3)A nitrogenous base

3. 12-1 Key Concepts Avery and other scientists discovered that the nucleic acid DNA stores and transmits the genetic information from one generation of an organism to the next. Watson and Crick’s model of DNA was a double helix in which two strands were wound around each other.

4. 12-1 Vocabulary Transformation – – the process in which one strain of bacteria is changed by a gene or genes from another strain of bacteria. Bacteriophage- – a virus that infects bacteria Nucleotides- – a monomer of nucleic acids made up of a 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base. Base Pairing- – the principle that bonds in DNA can form only between adenine and thymine and between guanine and cytosine.

6. 12-1 Adenine & Guanine are purines Cytosine & Thymine are pyrimidines

7. 12-2 What is the main difference between prokaryotic cells & eukaryotic cells? Prokaryotes (bactera) do NOT have a nucleus Eukaryotes (plants/animals) DO have a nucleus Prokaryotes store their DNA in the ___________ cytoplasm Eukaryotes store their DNA in the _____________ nucleus

8. 12-2 Eukaryotes chromosomes contain DNA and protein, tightly packed together to form a substance called chromatin. Which stage of Mitosis is this? Interphase

9. 12-2 Key Concept During DNA replication, the DNA molecule separates into two strands, and then produces two new complementary strands following the rules of base pairing. Each strand of the double helix of DNA serves as a template, or model, for the new strand.

10. Complementary Strand (Following DNA base pairing rules…) CAG GCC TAC GTC CGG ATG A- T & C-G

11. 12-2 Vocabulary Chromatin – granular material visible within the nucleus; consists of DNA tightly coiled around proteins. Histone – protein molecules around which DNA is tightly coiled into chromatin. Replication – the copying process by which a cell duplicates its DNA. DNA polymerase – the enzyme involved in DNA replication that joins individual nucleotides to produce a DNA molecule.

12. MACROMOLECULE REVIEW NUCLEIC ACIDS– DNA and RNA nucleic acids store and transmit hereditary, or genetic, information.

13. MACROMOLECULE REVIEW CARBOHYDRATES- Sugars and Starches Living things use carbohydrates as their main source of energy (short term energy source) Plants use them for structural purposes. ___:____:___ ratio 1:2:1 ratio C 6 H 12 O 6

14. Macromolecule Test CARBOHYDRATES REAGANT + COLOR Simple Sugars Benedict’s Orange Starch Iodine (Lugols) Black/ Brown

15. MACROMOLECULE REVIEW LIPIDS- fats, oils, waxes, & steriods Lipids can be used to store energy (long term). They also make up an important part of the cell membrane (phospholipid bilayer).

16. Macromolecule Test LIPIDS REAGANT + COLOR Sudan Red *also the brown paper bag test

17. MACROMOLECULE REVIEW PROTEINS- made up of amino acids Some proteins control the rate of reactions and regulate cell processes (enzymes). Some are used to form bones and muscles. Others transport substances into or out of the cells or help to fight disease.

18. Macromolecule Test PROTEINS Reagant + Color Buirets Violet

19. Bell Work 2-25-16 1.During DNA _____________, the chromosomes are duplicated (or copied). REPLICATION 2. During ___________, a strand of DNA is used as the template to make RNA. TRANSCRIPTION 3. During ___________, the information from mRNA is used (along with rRNA and tRNA) to produce proteins. TRANSLATION

20. DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is a nucleic acid – It is a long molecule made up of units called nucleotides – Nucleotides are made up of three parts: a 5-carbon sugar (deoxyribose), a phosphate group, & a nitrogenous base Base Pairs o There are four nitrogenous bases for DNA: adenine - thymine, cytosine – guanine DNA

21. Duplicating DNA Before a cell divides, it duplicates its DNA in a copying process called replication. During which phase of the cell cycle is the DNA replicated? – Interphase, during the S phase DNA replication is carried out by a series of enzymes. These enzymes “unzip” a molecule of DNA. The principal enzyme involved is called DNA polymerase

22. RNA (Ribonucleic acid) is a nucleic acid RNA also consists of a long chain of nucleotides There are three main differences between RNA and DNA The sugar in RNA is ribose instead of deoxyribose RNA is generally single-stranded, rather than double stranded RNA contains uracil in place of thymine RNA

23. Types of RNA RNA’s main job is PROTEIN SYNTHESIS (assembly of amino acids into proteins) The RNA molecules that carry copies of these instructions are known as messenger RNA (mRNA) Proteins are assembled on ribosomes as well as a form of RNA, known as ribosomal RNA. (rRNA). A third type of RNA tranfers each amino acid to the ribosome as it is specified by coded messages in mRNA. These are known as transfer RNA (tRNA).

24. The 3 types of RNA

25. Transcription RNA molecules are produced by copying part of the nucleotide sequence of DNA into complementary sequences in RNA, a process known as TRANSCRIPTION & requires an enzyme known as RNA polymerase. During Transcription, RNA polymerase uses one strand of DNA as a template from which nucleotides are assembled into a strand of RNA.

26. RNA editing The DNA of eukaryotic genes contains sequences of nucleotides called introns, that are not involved in the coding for proteins. The DNA sequences that code for proteins are called exons, because they are “expressed” in the synthesis of proteins. The introns are cut out of the RNA molecule and the exons are spliced together (Fig. 12-15) 302

27. Introns & Exons

28. Translation The sequence of nucleotide bases in an mRNA (messanger RNA) molecule serve as instructions for the order in which amino acids should be joined together to form a polypeptide. The decoding of an mRNA message into a polypeptide chain (protein) is known as translation.

29. Transcription & Translation

30. Mutations Now and then cells make mistakes in copying their own DNA. Mutations are changes in the genetic material. Mutations that produce changes in a single gene are known as gene mutations. Those that produce changes in whole chromosomes are known as chromosomal mutations.

31. Mutations Gene mutations involving changes in one or a few nucleotides are known as point mutations, because they occur at a single point in the DNA sequence. The genetic code is read in three-base codons. If a nucleotide is added or deleted, the bases are still read in groups of three, but now these groupings are shifted for every codon that follows. Changes like these are called frameshift mutations because they shift the reading frame.

32. Chromosomal Mutations Deletions involve the loss of all or part of a chromosome. Duplications produce extra copies of parts of a chromosome. Inversions reverse the direction of parts of a chromosome. Translocations occur when part of one of the chromosome breaks off and attaches to another

33. Significance of Mutations Many mutations have little to no effect. Others that cause drastic changes in protein structure or gene activity can be disrupt normal biological activity and may result in genetic disorders. Harmful mutations in body cells cause many forms of cancer. Mutations in the cells that produce gametes can be passed on to offspring. For example, when a complete set of chromosomes fails to separate during Meiosis, the gametes that result may produce triploid (3N) or tetraploid (4N) organisms. The condition in which an organism has extra sets of chromosomes is called POLYPOIDY.

34. Quiz Tomorrow Macromolecules & Ch. 12 Sections 1-4 Nucleic Acids, Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins DNA, DNA replication, RNA, Transciption, Translation, Base pairing, and Mutations Kahoot Review Get Your Cell Phones Out

35. 12-3 Key Concepts There are three main types of RNA: messanger RNA, ribosomal RNA, transfer RNA. During transcription, RNA polymerase binds to DNA and separates DNA strands. RNA polymerase then uses one strand of DNA as a template from which nucleotides are assembled into a strand of RNA. During translation, the cell uses information from messanger RNA to produce proteins.

36. 12-3 vocabulary Gene – - a sequence of DNA that codes for a protein and thus determines a trait. Messanger RNA – (mRNA)- RNA molecule that carries copies of instructions for the assembly of amino acids into proteins from DNA to the rest of the cell. Ribosomal RNA – (rRNA)- type of RNA that makes up the major part of ribosomes. Transfer RNA – (tRNA)- type of RNA molecule that transfers amino acids to ribosomes during protein synthesis.

37. 12-3 Vocabulary Transcription – the process in which part of the nucleotide sequence of DNA is copied into a complementary sequence in RNA. RNA polymerase – enzyme similar to DNA polymerase that binds to DNA and separates the DNA strands during transcription. Promotor – region of DNA that indicates to an enzyme where to bind to make RNA. Intron – sequence of DNA that is not involved in coding for a protein.

38. 12-3 Vocabulary Exon – expressed sequences of DNA; codes for a protein Codon – three-nucleotide sequence on messenger RNA that codes for a single amino acid. Translation – decoding of a mRNA message into a polypeptide chain. Anticodon – group of three bases on a tRNA molecule that are complementary to an mRNA codon.

39. 12-4 Vocabulary Mutation- change in a DNA sequence that affects genetic information. point mutation- gene mutation involving changes in one or a few nucleotides. frameshift mutation- mutation that shifts the “reading” frame of the genetic message by inserting or deleting a nucleotide. Polyploidy- condition in which an organism has extra sets of chromosomes.

40. Base pairs of DNA vs. RNA Base pairs of DNA Adenine & Thymine Cytosine & Guanine Base pairs of RNA Adenine & Uracil Cytosine & Guanine

41. CODONS Proteins are made by joining amino acids into long chains called polypeptides. Each polypeptide contains a combination of any or all of the 20 different amino acids. Remember: Codons are three consecutive nucleotides that specify a single amino acid. Amino Acids build proteins.

42. Fig 12-17 p.303 Start from the Middle & Work Outwards