1. Soc. 2155 Intro to Research Methods

2. Chapters 1-2 What is methodology? Every-day inquiry vs. science From theory to hypothesis Dependent and independent variables Research design –Topics and purposes of research –Units of analysis –Time designs –Qualitative and quantitative methods

3. Methodology = science of “finding out” How do we come to know? How do we gather information? How do we draw conclusions?

4. Everyday Inquiry vs. Science: Similarities How we come to know – –experience –teaching –agreement/belief Concepts of “cause” and “probability” Prediction as a goal Influence of tradition, authority

5. Everyday Inquiry vs. Science: Differences Conscious methodology Colleague review Commitment to objectivity Strive for generalizability Strive for validity

6. Errors in every day inquiry 1.Inaccurate obs. 2.Overgeneralization 3.Selective observation 4.Illogical reasoning 5.Personal involvement 6.Resistance 1.Structure obs. 2.Sampling 3.Sampling 4.Logical steps 5.Careful design, peer review 6.Science can study anything that exists ErrorScientific solution

7. Research Process DeductionInduction Theory Structured obs. Hypothesis Decision Theory Structured obs. Hypothesis Pattern finding Observation

8. From Theory to Data Concept = image, name for category of things Proposition = statement of relationship b/t concepts. Theory = set of propositions that explains a general class of phenomena Variable = observable indicator of a concept Hypothesis = statement of relationship b/t variables. Specific, can be tested.

9. Example: Functional Theory of Stratification Importance of role Talent, skill, training Desirability of role SOCIAL REWARD -- Theory proposes relationships between abstract concepts

10. Concepts used in functional theory: Concept: Indicator Variable Importance of role Talent, skill training Desirability Social reward Necessary for survival? Education, experience, ability, IQ, etc. # people willing to do it Prestige, earnings

11. Hypotheses we could deduce from functional theory: 1.CEO earns more than janitor. 2.Rock star has more prestige than college professor. 3.Doctor earns more than waiter. 4.People don’t have to be paid to have children. 5.Police officer earns more $ and gets more respect than all of the above!

12. Dependent and Independent Variables Dependent variable (DV) = variable to be explained or predicted. Outcome or effect. May “depend” on other variables in the study. Independent variable (IV) = variable that explains or predicts the DV. Cause, explanation, predictor, or antecedent. Is not explained by other variables in the study.

13. State the IV’s and DV’s Voting behavior is affected by gender. ACT test score is a predictor of college GPA. The higher the hours spent studying, the higher one’s grade will be. Single parent families are more likely than two parent families to live in poverty. There is a positive relationship between years of education and income.

14. Where do research topics come from? Specialty areas, ongoing work Current events, public issues Need to solve specific problem Need to evaluate programs, policies Request of outside agency Personal experience or interest

15. What makes a good topic? Feasibility Social Importance Scientific Relevance

16. 3 Research Purposes 1. Exploratory – explore new topics, methods, or feasibility of a larger study. 2. Descriptive – describe a large population. Make generalizations from sample data. Characteristics, trends. 3. Explanatory – test hypotheses, address questions of cause and effect.

17. Units of Analysis: “Who” or “What” will the research describe? Individual Group Organization Area Artifact Persons, respondents Households, families Schools, businesses, depts. Cities, states, neighborhoods Documents, recordings, art Unit Examples

18. Identify Units of Analysis and Independent/Dependent Variables 1.The more years of education a person has, the higher the income s/he will earn. 2.Men are more likely than women to participate in recreational sports. 3.The more children a family has, the lower the proportion of their income that will go into savings. 4.Crime rates are higher in urban areas than in rural areas. 5.Truancy rates are higher in larger high schools. 6.Toy commercials show high levels of gender stereotyping.

19. Time Dimension of Research Cross sectional study: single point in time, a “snapshot.” –Faster, less expensive –Can’t analyze trends or causal relationships Longitudinal study: 2+ points in time, a “movie.” –Longer, more costly –Gives more information about timing of events –Can study trends, causes

20. 3 Longitudinal Designs Trend study: same population, different points in time. (Ex: opinion polls) Cohort study: population who experienced same event at same time (Ex: birth, marriage, graduation) Panel study: exact same persons are followed over period of time

21. Qualitative vs. Quantitative Qualitative Methods Direct observation Participant observation Unstructured interview Content analysis Rich detail, insight, deep understanding. May be limited to case studies or small samples Quantitative Methods Surveys Experiments Existing statistics Suited to statistical analysis. Can summarize large amounts of data. Can generalize to large populations.

22. Association = relationship Does not have to be causal. Positive association = as X increases, Y increases. Negative association = as X increases, Y decreases. Qualitative variables: presence of X predicts presence or absence of Y.

23. Which associations could be causal? Years work experience/ income # churches / # bars in a town Cigarette smoking/ lung cancer # firefighters called to fire/ $ amount of damage Race/ poverty Spurious association = apparent association caused by a third factor

24. Cause = necessary and sufficient condition Necessary: X must be present in order for Y to follow. (ex: to get an “A” it is necessary to complete all assignments). Sufficient: If X occurs, Y must follow. (ex: if you get 100% on every assignment, you will get an “A” in the class.)

25. 3 criteria for causality X causes Y if: X precedes Y in time X and Y are statistically associated All other potential causes of Y have been ruled out.

26. Additional Criteria Mechanism – connection between “cause” and “effect” – how the cause operates to produce the effect. Context – situations, groups, places, conditions, etc. In which the cause produces the effect.

27. Determinants/ partial causes Most sociological phenomena have multiple causes. “Determinant” = partial cause or predictor. Not a complete cause. Example: Some determinants of income: Education Skill Training Experience Intelligence Marital status Talent Personality Job duties Type of company Occupation Gender Race Geographic area Industry

28. Types of Causes Nomothetic Cause – General explanation of a class of phenomena. (e.g., causes of terrorism, crime) Idiographic Cause – Specific event or sequence of events. (e.g., causes of 9/11 attacks, sudden rise in crime rates) May be historical in focus.

29. Multivariate Relationships Z X Y Y Y Y Z Z Z X X X Multiple causes (determinants) of Y Z as spurious cause of X and Y Direct and indirect effects Z intervenes B/T X and Y OR Z “explains” relationship B/T X and Y