1. Memory and Thought  Explain the three processes of memory  Describe the information-processing model of memory  Identify several memory retrieval processes  Explain the processes involved in forgetting

2. Section 1: Taking in and Storing Information Vocabulary  Memory  Encoding  Storage  Retrieval  Sensory Memory  Short-term Memory  Maintenance Rehearsal o Chunking o Semantic Memory o Episodic Memory o Declarative Memory o Procedural Memory

3. The Processes of Memory Memory- the storage and retrieval of what has been learned or experienced  Encoding- the transforming of information so the nervous system can process it  Storage- the process by which information is maintained over a period of time  Retrieval- the process of obtaining information that has been stored in memory

4. Encoding Use of our senses to encode and establish memory  Acoustic codes - sense of hearing is used  Visual codes - sense of sight (picture)  Semantic codes - use a system  Sense of Smell is a very powerful way to encode. People can’t retrieve distant memories when they smell something associated with it.

5. Storage and Retrieval Effective storage of information depends a lot on how much effort was put into encoding the information and how important the information is. Effective retrieval of information depends on how efficiently it was encoded and stored. (Kind of like a well organized file cabinet)

6. Three Stages of Memory Sensory Memory- very brief memory storage immediately following initial stimulation of a receptor Short-Term Memory- memory that is limited in capacity to about seven items and in duration by the subject’s active rehearsal Long-Term Memory- refers to the storage of information over extended periods of time according to categories and features

7. Sensory Memory Capacity – Virtually everything you see or hear at one instant Duration- Fraction of a second Examples  Iconic Memory – Visual sensory memory  Echoic Memory- Auditory sensory memory Functions of Sensory Memory  It prevents you from being overwhelmed  It gives you some decision time to choose to pay attention or not  Allows for continuity and stability

8. Short-Term Memory (Working Memory) Capacity – About 7 items in healthy adults Duration – Less than 20 seconds if not rehearsed Characteristics  The things you have in your conscious mind at any one moment.  Does not necessarily involve paying attention Working Memory - serves as a system for processing and working with current information in short-term memory.

9. Methods for retaining information beyond short-term memory capacity and duration Maintenance Rehearsal- a system for remembering that involves repeating information to oneself without attempting to find meaning in it Chunking- the process of grouping items to make them easier to remember The Primacy-Recency Effect- being able to recall information presented at the beginning and the end of a list easier than information in the middle.  Primacy Effect- 1 st Part because you had more time to rehearse  Recency Effect- Last Part because it was the last thing you saw

10. Long-Term Memory Capacity – Vast, uncountable, limitless Duration – Perhaps a lifetime Contains representations of countless facts, experiences, and sensations Types of Long-Term Memory  Semantic Memory  Episodic Memory  Declarative Memory  Procedural Memory

11. Types of Long-Term Memory Semantic- knowledge of language, including its rules, words, and meanings Episodic- memory of one’s life, including time of occurrence Declarative- memory of knowledge that can be called forth consciously as needed and includes both semantic and episodic Procedural- memory of learned skills that does not require conscious recollection  Skills  Habits

12. Memory and the Brain Amygdala: Emotional Associations Cortex: Long-Term and Short-Term Memory (ability to remember words, facts, and events from the past) Hippocampus: Long-Term Memory (ability to transfer words, facts, and events from short to long term memory Thalamus: Information Processing ( ability to process sensory information, crucial to creating memories)

13. Section 2: Retrieving Information Vocabulary  Recognition  Recall  Reconstructive Processes  Confabulation  Schemas  Eidetic Memory  Decay  Interference  Elaborative Rehearsal  Mnemonic Devices

14. Recognition Memory retrieval in which a person identifies an object, idea, or situation as one he or she has or has not experienced before Information in the brain can be stored or indexed under several different headings so that it can be reached in many ways.

15. Recall Memory retrieval in which a person actively reconstructs previously learned material Involves a person’s knowledge, attitudes, and expectations Remembering is an active process guided by our experiences, knowledge, and cues from the environment

16. Reconstructive Processes of Recall Reconstructive Processes- the alteration of a recalled memory that may be simplified, enriched, or distorted, depending on an individual’s experiences, attitudes, or inferences  Confabulation – the act of filling in memory gaps (may be correct or not)

17. Restructuring in terms of Schemas Schemas- conceptual frameworks a person uses to make sense of the world  Sets of expectations about something that is based on our past experiences  See study on the crash and the use of words and how they influenced the story  See Eyewitness Testimony box (page284)

18. Eidetic Memory / Photographic Eidetic memory is a form of photographic memory in which one can recall very specific details from a picture, a page, or scene briefly viewed. About 5% of children Photographic memory is very rare in adults and involves the ability to form sharp visual images after examining a picture or page for a short time and then recalling the entire image later.

19. Flashbulb Memories Involve events that are very shocking, emotional, or have serious consequences. Involve special kinds of encoding that occur when events are extreme and/or personal J.F.K. Assassination, Pearl Harbor, 911, etc.

20. State Dependent Learning Occurs when you recall information easily when you are in the same physiological or emotional state or setting as you were when you originally encoded the information.

21. Relearning A measure of both declarative and procedural memory. If you take information you learned once and the second time around it will take less time and effort to learn it again.

22. Forgetting Decay – fading away of memory over time Interference – blockage of a memory by previous or subsequent memories  Proactive – an earlier memory blocks you from remembering related new information  Retroactive – a later memory or new information blocks you from remembering information learned earlier Repression – the material still exists in the person’s memory, but it has been made inaccessible because it is so disturbing Amnesia – loss of memory that may occur after a blow to the head,as a result of brain damage, drug use, or severe psychological stress Infant Amnesia – relative lack of early declarative memories

23. Improving Memory Meaningfulness and Association  Elaborative Rehearsal – linking of new information to material that is already known  Overlearning – keep rehearsing it even after you think you know it well  Avoid studying similar materials together  Distributed Practice – space out learning over time Mnemonic Devices – Techniques for using associations to memorize information