2. Focused on the following: Equality under the law Centralized government Modern civil service (based on merit) End of feudal privileges (decrease in church authority) Acknowledging rights of private property End of corrupt and arbitrary crown rule The constitution was created as a way to show France (Napoleon) that they were still independent and, in order to try and restore control over the colonies, it gave Spaniards and Latin Americans more freedom thinking that this would prevent rebellion. While the constitution did not directly address the issue of colonial independence, it did serve to inspire Latin American revolutionaries. It went into affect under Joseph II’s rule, but ended when Ferdinand VII was restored to power. It was then restored in 1820 after the “Cadiz Mutiny” – forced Ferdinand VII to agree to the tenets of the 1812 constitution, end absolutism and have a limited monarchy.

3. Plan of Iguala 1. Mexico would be an independent monarchy governed by King Ferdinand VII (or another Bourbon prince) 2. Creoles and Peninsulares would have equal social standing and have the same rights and privileges 3. Roman Catholic church would remain the official church of the nation Appealed to the conservatives who supported a monarchy, less change Liberals who wanted more change Creoles who wanted an elevated status Catholics who were loyal to the church over the crown Didn’t offer any real change to lower classes Army of the Three Guarantees 1. Religion- Mexico was going to be a Catholic country, this showed their independence from Spain since the Crown had restricted church power 2. Independence – Promises independence from Spanish rule 3. Unity – Representative of how this plan would bring all social classes equality under independent Mexican rule

4. 1. Due to the fact that Spain had cut off the colonies from outside world in regards to “science of government and administration of the state”, Bolivar feels that the colonists are not in a position to run their own nations. He feels it is impossible to rise up from a position of servitude to a position of independence. 2. Violations of human liberty- “fear of death, dishonor, and every harm”, restrictions trade, commerce and agriculture, lack of citizen involvement in every aspect of government. 3. The fact that there is “no reasonable probability” of successful revolution “to bolster our hopes”. Bolivar claims there is no precedent to follow, no example that has been set, of a people rising from tyranny into a successful republic. 4. Bolivar does not seem concerned about the economic and social condition of the nonwhites. This implies that he believes revolution stems from the Creole class alone and that even with a revolution the conditions for these Americans won’t change. 5. “When success is not assured, when the state is weak, and when results are distantly seen, all men hesitate; opinion is divided, passions rage, and the enemy fans these passions in order to win an easy victory because of them.”

6. This painting shows the initial meeting between Simon Bolivar and Jose de San Martin in Guayaquil, Ecuador (July 1822).

7. This painting illustrates the crossing of the Andes Mountains by Jose de San Martin and Bernardo O’Higgins during the Argentine War of Independence.

8. This political cartoon attempts to illustrate the actual, rather than intended, results of South American independence movements of the early 19 th century.