1. CHAPTER SIXTEEN SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN MIDDLE ADULTHOOD

2. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada 16-2 I. THEORIES OF SOCIAL & PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT Middle adulthood is commonly seen as the time when people are best able, developmentally, to manage the weighty demands associated with positions of authority and responsibility

3. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada 16-3 A. Erikson's Generativity versus Stagnation Stage Generativity versus stagnation stage: –Middle-aged adults find meaning in contributing to the development of younger individuals Generativity: –A sense that one is making a valuable contribution to society by bringing up children or mentoring younger people (teaching, mentoring, leading in civic, religious or charitable organizations) –Generativity is positively related to mental health at this age, and is a more prominent theme for women than for men (continued)

4. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada 16-4 Erikson's Generativity versus Stagnation Stage (continued) The impact of childlessness –The way a man had responded earlier to his childlessness was predictive of his psychological health at age 47 –Rearing one’s own or another’s child who calls forth one’s nurturing qualities may be important for psychological growth –These findings are relatively consistent across ethnic and economic boundaries

5. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada 16-5 B. Mid-Life Crisis: Fact or Fiction? The term mid-life crisis was coined in the 1960s, when major events along life’s timeline were relatively lockstep and predictable, especially for men (school – work – retirement – death) Midway between school and death, a person’s perspective shifted from “time since birth” to “time left before death” The realization of the inevitability of death, along with other indicators of time passing, seemed to be a universal phenomenon that hit people during their 40s Now, however, the timing and nature of major life events have changed dramatically Several studies since the 1980s have failed to identify distinct ages at which measures of “mid-life crisis” occurred A better term may be “mid-life transition” along with a focus on growth rather than stress

6. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada 16-6 C. Role Transitions A role is the content of a social position—the behaviours and characteristics expected of a person filling that position Roles are at least partially culture- and cohort- specific Role conflict: any situation in which two or more roles are at least partially incompatible, either because they call for different behaviours or because their separate demands add up to more hours than there are in the day Role strain: the strain experienced by an individual whose own qualities or skills do not measure up to the demands of some role (continued)

7. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada 16-7 Role Transitions (continued) Duvall described 8 family life stages –Because an individual’s behaviours and attitudes are shaped by their roles, role change with age will lead to systematic and predictable change in the individual –This model has 2 major flaws 1.It omits a number of important roles, and does not reflect the years beyond 65 2.People don’t move through the sequence in the listed order While sequence and timing vary, the particular family life cycle an individual experiences clearly has an important effect on his or her life pattern

8. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada 16-8 Duvall’s Stages of the Family Life Cycle

9. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada 16-9 II. CHANGES IN RELATIONSHIPS AND PERSONALITY Family roles are still an important part of life in middle age These roles change significantly during this period of life

10. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada 16-10 A. Partnerships Marital stability and satisfaction increase in mid-life, reaching higher levels than at any time since early marriage Shared friendships increase, while non-shared friendships decrease Skilled diplomacy: a problem solving approach that involves the confrontation of the spouse about an issue, followed by a period during which the confronting spouse works to restore harmony –Is practised more often by wives than by husbands –Appears to be an effective skill for marital problem- solving no matter which spouse uses it

11. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada 16-11 B. Children and Parents A result of the extended life expectancy is that adults are likely to spend many more years with both upward and downward family relationships The family role involves not only maximum amounts of assistance given in both directions in the generational chain, but also the maximum responsibility for maintaining affectional bonds, producing what is sometimes called the mid-life "squeeze," or the "sandwich generation" Those between ages 40 and 65 give more than they receive in both directions in the family lineage—to adult children and to aging parents (continued)

12. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada 16-12 The Sandwich Generation

13. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada 16-13 Effects on High Intensity Sandwich Generation Workers

14. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada 16-14 Children and Parents (continued) Multigenerational Family Influences: –Hagestad studied attempts to influence other generations in a 3-generation family –Middle-aged adults spent more effort trying to influence their children than their parents –Young adult children receive advice aimed at shaping children’s transition to key adult roles –Aging parents receive advice on where to live, and how to manage household and money –Children more often succeed in influencing their parents than vice versa –Inter-generational discussions tend to have a theme and agenda, and show differences in women’s themes and men’s themes

15. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada 16-15 C. Emptying the Nest The timing of the "empty nest" stage in the family life cycle obviously depends on a person's (or couple's) age when the last child is born Those who delay childbearing push the empty nest to a later age—a pattern typical of today's Canadian adults The role of parent does not cease when the child leaves home Adults have much more time for their spousal roles, a change that contributes to the higher reported marital satisfaction in this stage of family life

16. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada 16-16 D. The Revolving Door When adult children return to their parents’ home, conflicts are common –Parents and children report inadequate privacy –Parents’ sense of obligation to children leads them to delay pursuit of their own goals The percentage of adult children living with parents is increasing, due to –Financial difficulties (unemployment or schooling) –Delayed marriage –Rise in the divorce rate Despite some conflict, new tasks and roles, more than half of parents are satisfied with the arrangement

17. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada 16-17 E. Grandparenting One of the few normative experiences of middle adulthood is that of grandparenting Most grandparents see or talk to their grandchildren regularly and describe the relationships as warm and loving Warm relationships with grandparents have a positive impact on children's development Grandparents seem to be an especially important source of stability in the lives of children of divorced parents (continued)

18. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada 16-18 Grandparenting (continued) Basic styles of grandparenting: –Remote relationships, in which grandparents do not see their grandchildren often –Companionate relationships, in which grandparents have frequent contact and warm interactions with grandchildren –Involved relationships, in which grandparents are directly involved in the everyday care of grandchildren or have close emotional ties with them

19. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada 16-19 F. Caring for Aging Parents Another role that has a powerful effect on overall life satisfaction, is that of major caregiver to one's aging parents In virtually every culture, a great majority of adults feel a strong sense of responsibility to their aging parents About one quarter of family members aged 45 to 54 provided unpaid care for elderly parents in Canada, and approximately 12 % of people over 65 who have adult children, live with those children Caregiver burden: a term for the cumulative negative effects of caring for an elderly or disabled person (continued)

20. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada 16-20 Consequences of the Care-giving Role

21. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada 16-21 No Easy Answers: Who Cares for Aging Parents in Canada? Options in Canada include: –in-home care (private and publicly funded) –independent-supportive living, e.g., full-service residences or apartments –retirement homes –nursing homes and homes for the aged –palliative care and hospice care facilities (continued)

22. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada 16-22 No Easy Answers: Who Cares for Aging Parents in Canada? (continued) When family members provide the care: –Canadian women are the ones most likely to be actively involved in the care-giving of their elderly parents and, in their later years, an elderly spouse –If a son is unmarried, he is more likely to take on the caregiving role than is a married sister –If both a son and a daughter are involved, the two often divide the responsibilities Caregivers with good support networks (including a supportive spouse) and help from other caregivers experience fewer negative consequences

23. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada 16-23 G. Friends The total number of friendships is lower than in young adulthood Mid-life friendships are as intimate and close as at earlier ages Since role conflicts are fewer at this age, the need for a social network for emotional support may be less Friendship depends less on frequent contact than on a sense that friends are there to provide support as needed

24. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada 16-24 H. Continuity and Change in Personality Negative emotional traits in adolescence strongly predicted less-than-optimal mental health status in both early adulthood and middle age Most people believe personality changes with age, but research shows that most people change less than they would expect Common changes include –Declines in achievement striving, independence, assertiveness, and individualism –Increases in prosocial behaviours (which are linked to secure attachments in infancy and childhood) Causes of personality change may include –Increases in ability to maintain control over emotions –Growth of personal flexibility

25. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada 16-25 III.MID-LIFE CAREER ISSUES Work satisfaction is at its peak in these years, despite the fact that most adults receive few work promotions in middle age The quality of work performance remains high, despite declines in some cognitive or physical skills

26. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada 16-26 A. Work Satisfaction Job satisfaction (combined with a sense of power and control in the job) is typically at its peak in the middle years Middle-aged men begin to disengage from their work as a primary source of personal fulfilment or satisfaction, but are likely to be more pleased with the work itself If women begin to work steadily in their 30s and 40s, the middle adult years may be the time of the most rapid work advancement rather than simple maintenance of previous gains Men and women cite the same sources of work dissatisfaction in middle age: –time pressure, difficult co-workers, boring tasks, and fear of losing one’s job

27. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada 16-27 B. Job Performance Job performance remains high throughout the middle years of adulthood unless physical strength or speedy reaction time are critical elements Selective optimization with compensation (Baltes & Baltes) helps maintain productivity: –Selection involves narrowing one's range of activities, by focussing on only the most central tasks, delegating more responsibilities to others, or giving up or reducing peripheral job activities –Optimization involves the deliberate "exercise" of crucial abilities so as to remain as close to maximum skill as possible –Compensation involves pragmatic strategies for overcoming specific obstacles, such as getting stronger glasses or hearing aids, or devising ways to reduce memory loads with systematic list-making

28. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada 16-28 C. Unemployment and Career Transitions Career changes, common in today’s job market, can be more difficult for middle aged people Employers tend to favour younger people as new employees Involuntary career changers: –Experience more mental health disorders and physical illness (including higher levels of mortality) Financial stress and deterioration in marital relations are direct and indirect causes Level of impact is related to coping skills and strength of supportive relationships –Reemployment reverses these trends (continued)

29. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada 16-29 Involuntary Employment and Mental Health

30. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada 16-30 Unemployment and Career Transitions (continued) Voluntary career changers leave one career to pursue another for a variety of internal reasons, such as finding a new job that is more fulfilling The tendency to change careers may have a genetic basis (McCall et al) –Such changes are a by-product of personality –Voluntary changers have a higher risk tolerance –Change can still be stressful, resulting in the same effects noted in involuntary changers

31. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada 16-31 D. Preparing for Retirement Many middle-aged adults begin to prepare for retirement, often as early as 15 years before their anticipated date One aspect of preparation is a gradual reduction in workload Retirement is a relatively new phenomenon Behaviours of current retirees may differ widely from those currently preparing for retirement –Until recently, retirement planning was almost exclusively a male responsibility (continued)

32. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada 16-32 Preparing for Retirement (continued) Retirement preparations of the Baby Boomers: –Women are involved in retirement planning –The expected length of retirement is far longer than that of earlier generations, 20 years or more –Most expect to continue a relatively high standard of living, but do not expect Old Age Security or Canada Pension to meet their lifestyle needs –Many have invested in the stock market, and have borrowed rather than saved to achieve their investment objectives, resulting in debt –Most Baby Boomers expect to work at least part-time during their retirement Boomers are predicted to be the healthiest, best- educated and longest-living retirees in history