1. S TUDY OF THE L OCAL G ALAXY B LUE L UMINOSITY D ISTRIBUTION AND C ORE -C OLLAPSE SN R ATE Kiranjyot (Jasmine) Gill, Dr. Michele Zanolin, Marek Szczepanczyk, Dr. Marica Branchesi, Dr. Giulia Stratta June 11 th, 2015 Urbino, Italy Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University; LIGO-Virgo; Universit degli Studi di Urbino

2. Overview  Analysis: Distributions of the galaxies within 20 Mpc and their given blue luminosity normalized to the Milky Way  infer CCSNe rate  Projected Outcome: Identify the best strategy to monitor galaxies and increase the chance of CCSNe detection.

3. Gravitational Wave Galaxy Catalog  Catalog had a list of galaxies within 100 Mpc that is currently being used in follow-up searches of electromagnetic counterparts from gravitational wave searches.  Used the following components : Galaxies within 20 Mpc Blue Luminosity (as blue absolute magnitude)

4. Why 20 Mpc as the chosen distance?  The current projected detection range for advanced LIGO and extreme models 5 Mpc Roughly 10 Mpc 20 Mpc  The current projected model exclusion range for advanced LIGO and extreme models is usually larger than the detection range and Coherent Wave Burst (CWB) + Bayes Wave + upgrades could expand ranges above by a factor of 2  Justifies extended range of interest by a factor of 2

5. SN Surveys & Searches Within 20 Mpc: Not much change with rate of SNe detected = suggests completeness Courtesy of Cappellaro

6. Completeness of SNe Surveys Not much rise in SNe detected with or w/o extinction corrections. Without extinction correction Extinction correction Courtesy of Cappellaro

7. Completeness of SNe Surveys Variation of SNe found within 20 Mpc  confirms assumption that CCSNe more likely to be found within Local Group Cappellaro Courtesy of Cappellaro

8. SN Type II Ejecta Light Curve SN 1988Z Turatto et al. 1998 Courtesy of Cappellaro

9. Faint CCSNe Light Curve Turatto etal. 1998 Courtesy of Cappellaro

10. Super luminous SN Light Curve Courtesy of Cappellaro

11. Steps Followed to Estimate the Cumulative Rate of CCSNe  Blue luminosity is a reasonable approximation for the star formation region mass.  Where L B is the blue luminosity of each given galaxy, and M B is the absolute magnitude of each given galaxy. M milkyway used in the blue luminosity equation = -20.8 (Karachentsev et al. 2004, 2013).  Estimate of the CCSNe rate for each galaxy: Galaxy_CCSNe_rate= L B/ L B_Milky_Way * MilkyWay_CCSNe_rate  Cumulative sum of the CCSNe rate up to 20 Mpc

12. MilkyWay_CCSNe_rate used in the Analysis Reference: Cappellaro et al. 1997, 1999  What is the Milky Way rate using this analysis  1.02 SNe/century  Why rate of 1.02 ± 0.9 SNe/century? (Following Dragicevich et al. 1999 & Cappellaro et al. 1997, 1999)  Based off of SNe Ib/c II rate for the spiral category (Milky Way luminosity 2.3 in units of 10 10 L B )  Comparison between our SNe rate and published measurements shows that they are consistent within each others uncertainties. Reference: van den Bergh et al. 1988

13. Estimated SN Rate Within 20 Mpc using Dahlen et al. 2004 ~200 SNe/century  Redshift regions primarily concentrated in:  0.30 < z < 0.70 Rate (Dahlen et al. 2004): 6E4 per Gpc 3 per year Reference: Dahlen et al. 2004, Cappellaro et al. 1999 1.Includes Type Sbc/Sd spirals 2.Randomized inclination of the disk of the galaxies =

14. SNe Rate Plot (Bias corrections included) Rate + 1 sigma Rate - 1 sigma Our Estimated Rate @ 20 Mpc Soderberg et al. 2008 Estimated Rate @ 20 Mpc

15. Luminosity Functions @ Various Distances Reference: White et al. 2011 20 Mpc 40 Mpc 100 Mpc

16. Different Rates: Dragicevich et al. 1999  Different rates consistent within the large errors.

17. Luminosity Distribution of the Galaxies within 20 Mpc 33 galaxies brighter than Milky Way and have a higher SNe rate 3225 galaxies that have a blue luminosity between 0 to 0.5 (dimmer than Milky Way & lower SNe rate) 64 galaxies that have a blue luminosity between 0.5 to 1 (dimmer than Milky Way & lower SNe rate)

18. Fraction of Blue Luminosities Found Within 20 Mpc

19. Classified and Unclassified Local Galaxies According to Morphology within 20 Mpc SPIRALS LENTICULARS ELLIPTICALS IRREGULARS VIRGO CLUSTER

20. Fraction of Blue Luminosity for Galaxies within 20 Mpc  Total blue luminosity present within 20 Mpc: 2.6678e+03  Total blue luminosity present within 20 Mpc for morphologically classified galaxies: 2.6386e+03  Total blue luminosity present within 20 Mpc for morphologically unclassified galaxies: 29.2680

21. Morphological Classification Correction  ( 2.6386e+03 ) / ( 2.6678e+03 ) = 0.9891 = 98.91% blue luminosity for classified galaxies  ( 29.2680 ) / (2.6678e+03) = 0.0110 = 1.10% blue luminosity for unclassified galaxies  Since fraction of blue luminosity taken by the unclassified galaxies = negligible within the catalog = neglect counting 1,686 galaxies for SN rate calculation

22. Distribution of Local Galaxies within 20 Mpc Right Ascension (degrees)Declination (degrees) Number of Galaxies RA: 195° Dec: 28° # = 119 RA: 192° Dec: -41° # = 51 RA: 244° Dec: -61° # = 46 RA: 28° Dec: 36° # = 34 VIRGO CLUSTER

23. Summary  Used galaxies within 20 Mpc  Approximated blue luminosity for mass of the galaxies (blue luminosity is a tracer for high star formation rates which correlates to areas of high mass)  Used to evaluate rate of CCSNe  Each galaxy’s CCSNe rate was evaluated using the Milky Way blue luminosity and CCSNe rate  Derived rate of roughly 300 SNe/century (compared to 200 SNe/century from Soderberg et al. 2008)

24. Questions?

25. Acknowledgements  I would like to thanks the following groups for their funding and use of technology:  ERAU URI  LVC Organization  Universit degli Studi di Urbino

26. Extra Slides

27. SNe Rate Plot (Bias corrections included) Referenced 5 searches: Asiago, Crimea, Evans, OCA, Calán/Tololo (C&T) Rate + 1 sigma Rate - 1 sigma Our Estimated Rate @ 20 Mpc Soderberg et. al 2008 Estimated Rate @ 20 Mpc

28. Justification for Discrepancies  Soderberg et al. 2008 = Milky Way Blue Luminosity of 2.6  Our rate = Milky Way Blue Luminosity of 2.3  Soderberg et al. 2008 = chose randomized inclinations for the targeted Sbc/Sd spiral galactic category  GWGCCatalog = incorporated inclination factors & omitted inclination below 20 ° as internal extinction = insignificant (<0.03 magnitude)  Soderberg et al. CCSNe rate imposed (Dahlen et al. 2004): 2.0 ± 1.1 SNe/century  CCSNe rate imposed (Li et al. 2011): 2.3 ± 0.48 SNe/century  consistent with published values (1.9–2.6 per century) based on observations of gamma-ray emission from radioactive 26 Al within the Milky Way  Includes: control-time calculation (depends on individual luminosity function that provides own light curve shape and peak absolute magnitude) & normalization factors = blue luminosity, stellar mass = strong observed correlation between the SN rates and the sizes of the host galaxies Reference: Li et al. 2011, Timmes et al. 1997, Diehl et al. 2006

29. Expanding Photosphere Method Type IIP SNe are characterized by: long period of luminosity known as the plateau right after a shock breakout, which usually lasts about an hour. The plateau region is often apparent due to the front of recombination traveling through ionized hydrogen shell in outermost layers of SNe Once front has moved = luminosity is due to radioactive decay in the core and therefore declines steadily. Determines distance and time of shock breakout of SNe by treating the photosphere during the plateau phase as a blackbody expanding spherically symmetrically. The method to derive these variables assumes 4 things are quantified: Distance to SNe (host galaxy) Photometry in any visible band B – V color Expansion Velocity

30. Expanding Photosphere Method Usually R>>>R 0  neglect R 0 Velocity of material at photosphere Time elapsed since shock breakout IMPORTANT How do we derive initial time?

31. Expanding Photosphere Method photospheric surface of radius Planck function of temperature Flux density of the SN

32. Expanding Photosphere Method Rate of expansion of the photospheric surface of the radius and of the angular size Difference between time of observation and time of outburst IMPORTANT Distance determined by : Flux and Temperature DIRECTLY OR Obtain distance  2 sets of velocity, temperature, and flux Assuming sufficient span of time IMPORTANT How do we know photosphere velocity?

33. Expanding Photosphere Method  ASSUME: Homologous expansion  mass shells, after prompt acceleration at time of SBO, travel at constant velocity Applicable to SNe within Milky Way  usually not likely  Θ has to be obtained indirectly −

34. Expanding Photosphere Method 1. EPM assumes photosphere = expanding spherically symmetrically & radiating like a blackbody. ◦ Specific luminosity of the photosphere: described in 2 equivalent ways: ◦ Function of observed flux ◦ Function of Intensity Radius of Photosphere Planck function of temperature Distance to SN Observed flux density of the SN

35. Expanding Photosphere Method De-reddened observed flux Extinction Observed flux Dilution factor: general correction to apply to fitted blackbody distribution  reproduce observed flux Account for “sphericity” & dilution effects  intro color temperature ASSUMING NOT A PERFECT BLACKBODY

36. Extra Slides

37. Electromagnetic Waves Gravitational Waves

38. Swift Simulator Goals  Motivation: Evaluating exposure time needed for Swift/XRT/UVOT when pointing at a galaxy to observe a shock break out (both for the X-ray and UV bands).  Analysis: Exposure times needed for Swift XRT when pointing at selected galaxies to observe shock break outs will give an overall idea of the possible number of galaxies to observe.

39. Case Study: Duration and Spectrum of XRO 080109

40. XRO 080109 Light Curves and Spectra

42. Swift XRT FOV in Comparison with Individual Angular Aperture of Galaxies GalaxyAngular SizeDistance Messier 8211.2’ x 4.3’3.5-3.8 Mpc NGC 456515.9’ x 1.85’16.2 Mpc NGC 6357 1 degree x 1 degree 48504.34 pc Canis Major Dwarf Galaxy 12 degrees x 12 degrees 8584.839 pc  Swift XRT = X-ray CCD imaging spectrometer designed to measure the position, spectrum, and brightness of gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) and afterglows over a wide dynamic range covering more than 7 orders of magnitude in flux.  Range of Wavelength = 0.3 eV – 10 keV  Field of View (‘) = 23.6 x 23.6 FOV/Angular Size Comparison 0.086 0.053 6.464 930.767

43. Swift Simulator (for Exposure Time)  3 software’s used: WebPIMMS, N H, WebSpec  WebPIMMS: Calculates flux value dealing directly with exposure time  N H : focused on the calculation of the total galactic hydrogen column density, which is the mass of hydrogen per unit area integrating volumetric density over a column.  WebSpec: provides a facility for simulating spectra for a variety of mission/instrument combinations and several different models. It utilizes the X-ray spectral fitting package, XSPEC. From this, a plot is produced that contrasts the channel energy used for the selected mission/instrument and contrasts this against the normalized counts/sec/keV.

44. WebPIMMs  1 st Order of Importance: Deals directly with exposure time to observe the shock break out  Inputting typical flux (in erg/cm 2 s) of the chosen shock break out (may be taken from Swift directories) and then contrast against the expected count rate for the XRT detector by assuming a spectral model  Overall, gives an idea of the required exposure time one would need by varying the input fluxes as one inputs these sources at different redshifts  An example of an assumption: flux will decrease with increasing distances, and therefore will need more exposure time by a certain amount

45. WebPIMMs Methodology CPS: 1.324E1Counts/sec Convert from Flux into Swift/XRT/PC Count Rate Input energy range: 0.2 – 10 keV Output energy range: 0.2 – 10 keV Count Rate: 6.2 counts/second Galactic nH: 6.9 E21 cm -2 Redshift: 0.006992 Intrinsic nH: None Model of Source: Power Law Photon Index: 2.3 (using Soderberg et. al ‘08 as a reference)

46. WebPIMMS Input Power Law assumed best fit

47. WebPIMMs Output

48. WebPIMMS Exposure Time Diagram WebPIMMs input produces an output of… Signal to Noise Ratio: put above cts/√cts

49. WebPIMMs  For bright objects, such as XRO 080109 or GRB 060213, even with a small exposure (about 10-60 seconds), sources can be clearly seen due to intense brightness.  As long as there is more than 20 counts present in the Swift detector.

50. WebPIMMs Exposure Time Variation for XRO 080109 Redshift (z = #)Distance (Mpc) 0.01~44 0.033~146 0.05~222 0.07~310 Redshift Distance (Mpc)Counts/sec ~444.977 ~1464.520E-1 ~2221.955E-1 ~3101.003E-1 Original Exposure Time: 400 s Counts/sec = 0.5 Exposure time range: 4 s ~ 200 s Exposure Time 4.0184 44.2478 102.3018 199.4018

51. WebSpec  2 nd Order of Importance: Energy spectrums produced in order to give an idea of a produced plot a plot is produced that contrasts the channel energy used for the selected mission/instrument and contrasts this against the normalized counts/sec/keV.  Example of what kind of energy spectrum needed for a source with a defined flux will produce  Energy spectrum:The plot itself is the energy carried by photons at different frequencies, and demonstrates a slow increase over channel energy, the x-axis, and therefore a decrease at low x-ray energies due to photoelectric absorptions of soft x-rays by the heavy atoms along the line of sight.

52. WebSpec Methodology Mission/Instrument: Swift XRT Photon Counting Mode (Grades 0-12) Photoelectric Absorption x Power Law Exposure Time: 400 s Fitting over energies: 0.2 – 10 keV Calculating flux over energies: 0.2 -10 keV Hydrogen Column: 69 E22 cm -2 (compute the error) Photon Index: 2.3 (compute the error) Redshift: 0.006992 (freeze parameter) Normalization: 1.0 (using Soderberg et. al ‘08 as a reference) Energy Band: 1 Low Energy: 2 keV High Energy: 10 keV Count Rate (counts/second): 0.7 Photon Flux (ph/cm 2 /s): 0.0129425 Energy Flux (ergs/cm 2 /s): 1.4187E-10

53. WebSpec (for XRO 080109 @ 20 seconds of Exposure Time)

54. WebSpec (for XRO 080109 @ 400 seconds of Exposure Time)

55. WebSpec  Channel energy peak was about 6-7 keV which peaked at about 0.11 counts/sec/keV.  Having a power law fit, there was a count rate conversion of 4.3E42 erg/cm 2 /s for XRT 080109 which correlated to an official distance of 31 Mpc (in contrast to the distance published in Soderberg 2008 of 27 Mpc for the NGC 2770).

56. HEASARC Illustrated theorized hydrogen column density value for XRO 080109 compared to the hydrogen column density value used in Soderberg 2008. Theorized value: 1.79E20 cm -2 Soderberg value: 6.9 E21 cm -2 Percent change difference: insignificant Focus on N H : helps deal with minimal optical extinction Hydrogen Column Density, N H : measured as number of atoms/cm 2 which is the number of atoms projected on the basis of a cylinder (the height of the cylinder acts as the distance from the source).

57. Extra Discussion Slides

58. Case Study of “An extremely luminous X-ray outburst at the birth of a supernova” Wolf-Rayet (WR) stars = Favored progenitors of Type Ibc SNe.

59. GCN of GRB 060218/XRO 080109

60. 2 ND GCN of GRB 060218/XRO 080109

61. 3 rd GCN of GRB 060218/XRO 080109

63. Acknowledgements  I would like to thank the following groups for their funding and use of technology:  ERAU URI  LVC Organization  Universit degli Studi di Urbino