1. Stringing words together

2.  Connected speech is spoken language that is used in a continuous sequence, as in normal conversations. Also called connected discourse.  When we speak we hardly ever utter isolated sounds or syllables.  There is often a significant difference between the way words are pronounced in isolation and the way they are pronounced in the context of connected speech.  Connected speech is spoken language that is used in a continuous sequence, as in normal conversations. Also called connected discourse.  When we speak we hardly ever utter isolated sounds or syllables.  There is often a significant difference between the way words are pronounced in isolation and the way they are pronounced in the context of connected speech.

3.  Phonetic variability in connected speech is caused by:  The influence of the phonetic environment in which each phoneme occurs (  similitude, linking, assimilation, elision, vowel reduction, weak forms).  The rhythmic pattern of the syllable in which each phoneme occurs.  The speed of the utterance  Phonetic variability in connected speech is caused by:  The influence of the phonetic environment in which each phoneme occurs (  similitude, linking, assimilation, elision, vowel reduction, weak forms).  The rhythmic pattern of the syllable in which each phoneme occurs.  The speed of the utterance

4. Rhythm: the alternation of strong and weak beats. We naturally assign prominence to words that are important to give meaning to what we have to say:  ′children be′lieve in ′fairies  A ′week at the ′seaside is ′just what I ′need  Do you ′mind if I ′smoke  It’s ′hard to sur′vive in the ′jungle Rhythm: the alternation of strong and weak beats. We naturally assign prominence to words that are important to give meaning to what we have to say:  ′children be′lieve in ′fairies  A ′week at the ′seaside is ′just what I ′need  Do you ′mind if I ′smoke  It’s ′hard to sur′vive in the ′jungle

5.  Accented syllables are either one-syllable words of major word classes (hard, mind, smoke, week, just, need) or the stressed syllable of polysyllabic words of major word classes  Non-prominent syllables are words of minor word classes (in, it’s, do, you, is, what, I) or weak syllables of polysyllabic words.  Accented syllables are either one-syllable words of major word classes (hard, mind, smoke, week, just, need) or the stressed syllable of polysyllabic words of major word classes  Non-prominent syllables are words of minor word classes (in, it’s, do, you, is, what, I) or weak syllables of polysyllabic words.

6.  There are a large number of words in English which can have a "full" form and a "weak" form. This is because English is a stressed- timed language, and in trying to make the intervals between stressed syllables equal, to give the phrase rhythm, we tend to swallow non-essential words. Thus, conjunctions, pronouns, prepositions, auxiliaries and articles are often lost, causing comprehension problems for students, particularly for those whose language is syllable-timed.

7.  In a syllable-timed language, every syllable is perceived as taking up roughly the same amount of time, though the absolute length of time depends on the prosody. Syllable- timed languages tend to give syllables approximately equal prominence and generally lack reduced vowels.  Icelandic, Cantonese Chinese, Georgian, French, Welsh, Italian, Turkish and Spanish are commonly quoted as examples of syllable-timed languages.  In a syllable-timed language, every syllable is perceived as taking up roughly the same amount of time, though the absolute length of time depends on the prosody. Syllable- timed languages tend to give syllables approximately equal prominence and generally lack reduced vowels.  Icelandic, Cantonese Chinese, Georgian, French, Welsh, Italian, Turkish and Spanish are commonly quoted as examples of syllable-timed languages.

8.  The interval between one strong beat and the next is said to be isochronous (that is, each chunk is given, approximately equal amount of time)  Rhythm has important consequences on the incidence of weak sounds, which typically occur in unstressed syllables.  Tonicity is the assignment of rhythmic prominence.  Words stress versus sentence stress  The interval between one strong beat and the next is said to be isochronous (that is, each chunk is given, approximately equal amount of time)  Rhythm has important consequences on the incidence of weak sounds, which typically occur in unstressed syllables.  Tonicity is the assignment of rhythmic prominence.  Words stress versus sentence stress

9.  Non-native speakers, and Italians in particular, tend to produce utterances in which all the syllables are prominent, as if each was pronounced in its strong form.  Italian = a syllable-timed language

10.  Intonation generally refers to linguistically significant variations in pitch level across an utterance or part of an utterance. Intonation in English is an important vehicle for meaning. It helps the listener to get a clearer picture of what the speaker intends to mean.  (Pitch = acutezza, altezza)  Intonation helps to understand what the speaker wants to express together with other verbal and non-verbal signals, such as facial expressions and gestures.  Intonation generally refers to linguistically significant variations in pitch level across an utterance or part of an utterance. Intonation in English is an important vehicle for meaning. It helps the listener to get a clearer picture of what the speaker intends to mean.  (Pitch = acutezza, altezza)  Intonation helps to understand what the speaker wants to express together with other verbal and non-verbal signals, such as facial expressions and gestures.

11.  These patterns of pitch variation are essential to a phrase's meaning. Changing the intonation can completely change the meaning.  Example:  Say: 'It's raining'.  Now say it again using the same words, but giving it different meaning. You could say it to mean 'What a surprise!', or 'How annoying!', or 'That's great!'. There are many possibilities.  These patterns of pitch variation are essential to a phrase's meaning. Changing the intonation can completely change the meaning.  Example:  Say: 'It's raining'.  Now say it again using the same words, but giving it different meaning. You could say it to mean 'What a surprise!', or 'How annoying!', or 'That's great!'. There are many possibilities.

12.  A stretch (or chunk) of spoken material that has its own intonation pattern (or tune). Also called an intonation group, phonological phrase, tone unit, or tone group.  The intonation phrase (IP) is the basic unit of intonation. In phonetic analysis, the vertical bar symbol (|) is used to represent the boundary between two intonation phrases.  A stretch (or chunk) of spoken material that has its own intonation pattern (or tune). Also called an intonation group, phonological phrase, tone unit, or tone group.  The intonation phrase (IP) is the basic unit of intonation. In phonetic analysis, the vertical bar symbol (|) is used to represent the boundary between two intonation phrases.

14.  The way the pitch is modulated in language:  Rising  Falling  Fall-Rise  Rise-Fall

15.  Rising: non finality (general questions + incomplete clauses + direct address):  Was she glad to see him?  If he calls, ask him to come;  Sir, you dropped you notebook.  Falling: finality (declarative statements), imperative sentences, special questions:  I live in Moscow  This is the end of the news  sit down!  Where do you live?

16.  Fall-rise: uncertainty + doubt:  You may be right;  If I’m not mistaken;  he may be honest  Rise-fall: surprise + admiration + strong emotional feelings:  It’s true!  It’s impossible!

17.  He´s passed his exam. – a (pure) statement Falling  He´s passed his exam? – a question Rising  He´s passed his exam? – a question as an expression of surprise /it is unbelievable that he has passed his exam because he had not been studying a lot) Rise-Fall  He´s passed his exam. – a statement suggesting that he must know something, he may not be so lazy and now he deserves to take a rest after all. Fall-Rise

18.  Wh-word questions: falling intonation  Yes/No questions: rising  Statements: falling  Question-Tags: 'chat' - falling; 'check' - rising  Lists: rising, rising, rising, falling

19.  Attitudinal function  Grammatical function  Focusing function (also accentual, informational)  Discourse function (also cohesive)

20.  = expresses the speaker’s attitudes and emotions to the topic or as a response to the listener’s statement (boredom, gratitude, scepticism, arrogance etc.)  = adds additional meaning to the semantics of the statement.  = we do this by TONE. The choice of tone is context-dependent.  Voice quality, face and body expressions, loudness, speed contribute to this

21.  It is related to the segmentation of speech into meaningful units  My daughter who lives in Oxford | is a doctor (defining relative clause)  My daughter | who lives in Oxford | is a doctor (non defining relative clause)  Those who sold quickly| made a profit  Those who sold |quickly made a profit  She dressed | and fed the baby  She dressed and fed the baby

22.  It involves the placement of the stress on the nucleus, thus indicating where the focus of the information is centred.  Nuclear stress generally falls on the last lexical item of intonation.  I want to ‘buy a ‘new car (not a second- hand one)

23.  It distinguishes between old and new information in an utterance.  = directs the listener’s attention to the salient points of the message, the focus of the information.  = we do this by TONICITY. The exact speaker’s meaning is achieved by appropriate nucleus placement and choice of tone.  (a) ˈ Meet me by the clock in the station at ˋ six  A: OK, so we’ll be in the station by six, but where precisely do you want to meet?  B: ˈ Meet me by the ˋ clock in the station at six  Intonation serves the purpose of foregrounding relevant information and guiding the listener to understand what the speaker means