1. Introduction to Argument Chapter 2 (Pgs. 24-36) AP Language Demi Greiner | Arlyn Rodriguez Period 4

2. Logical Argument O Aristotle’s Modes of Persuasion: O Emotional-based on emotion (pathos) O Ethical-based on speaker’s character (ethos) O Logical-based on reason/facts (logos) *Can overlap when used in rhetorical text or visuals O It’s effectiveness depends mostly on whether or not the main assumption or premise is valid/acceptable O Should be objective, use of facts and reason O Argument is rarely supported by only logic

3. Inductive vs. Deductive O Inductive O Drawing likely conclusion based on specific evidence available O Common in daily life, scientific research, with conclusion based on observation, to seem valid O Ultimate and positive proof is beyond reach, “probability” O Starting “small” and gets “big” ❍ Deductive ❍ Defining a truth/value/right to make an argument and support the premise ❍ Using evidence as a secondary support ❍ Starts “big” gets “small” ❍ Uses syllogism pattern ❍ Major Premise (More general): All people have hearts. ❍ Minor Premise (Specific to article): John is a person. ❍ Conclusion: Therefore, John has a heart.

4. The Toulmin Model of Argumentation ❍ Many writers would combine inductive and deductive reasoning when making arguments and make them without the use of formal logic; so they explored ways of making it more practical and effective to use in arguments. ❍ One of the best known systems used was the Toulmin model developed by British philosopher Stephan Toulmin in the 1950s emphasizing that logic is concerned with probability rather than certainty. ❍ The Toulmin model Includes 3 main components: the claim, the data or reason, and the warrant.

5. Understanding Claims and Warrants ❍ Claims: writer's statement of belief the conclusion or point he/ she wants to make. ❍ There are 3 types of claims: claims supported by facts, claims supported by opinion, and claims supported by values. ❍ Warrants : general statement that establishes a trustworthy relationship between the date and the claim. ❍ Claims have to be made strong and support their argument adequately in order to make it effective. ❍ Warrants are complex and differ from one argument to another and sometimes because they reflect beliefs and assumptions, can be controversial and disputable.

6. Evaluating Claims and Warrants ❍ If you want to engage in a serious argument out of desire to address it or solve the problem you need to how claims worked how to evaluate them. ❍ Toulmin's ideas about claim and warrants can be useful in evaluating claims. ❍ If claims are based on a warrant that are not acceptable to an audience, the writer must defend that warrant. Otherwise the claim might not be as persuasive to the audience.