1. jihad = “striving/struggle” Today look at two readings of passages on fighting in the Qur’an Traditional reading: transition from non- confrontational stance to increasingly aggressive one in face of historical events

2. Traditional reading: Non-militant approach (Qur’an 15: 94-95; 16: 125) Defensive warfare, within restrictions (Qur’an 22: 39-40; 2: 190) Offensive warfare, within restrictions (Qur’an 2: 217 (raid on caravan, 624); 2: 191)

3. Traditional reading: Further endorsement of offensive warfare against unbelievers (Qur’an 2: 216; 9: 5, 29 (“Sword Verses,” after taking of Mecca in 630)) Move from non-aggression to defensive warfare, then offensive warfare eventually aiming to spread Islam at sword-point? Issues of interpretation

4. Alternate reading (Reuven Firestone, Jihad: The Origin of Holy War in Islam (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999)): Criticism of those who refuse to fight (Qur’an 4: 95). Indicative of diversity of views.

5. Alternate reading. Consider: 1. Verses advocating non-militant defense/ spreading of faith 2. Verses placing restrictions on fighting 3. Verses showing conflict between God’s command and Muslims’ reactions 4. Verses advocating fighting for faith

6. Alternate reading: 1. Verses advocating non-militant defense/ spreading of faith Non-confrontational approach (Qur’an 15: 94-95; 16: 125)

7. Alternate reading: 2. Verses placing restrictions on fighting Not exceeding proper limits (Qur’an 2: 190) Temporal restrictions (Qur’an 2: 194; 9: 36) Defending Muslims, Christians and Jews (Qur’an 22: 39-40)

8. Alternate reading: 3. Verses showing conflict between God’s command and Muslims’ reactions Reluctance to fight (Qur’an 2: 216; 4: 95-96 (includes criticism))

9. Alternate reading: Verses advocating fighting for faith Restricted form of fighting (Qur’an 2: 191, 193, 217; 9: 5, 29; 60: 8-9) Unrestricted fighting (Qur’an 47: 4; 9: 73) Mix of attitudes in early Muslim society?

10. Later evolution of jihad doctrine: Greater importance given to inner jihad against one’s own sinfulness and non-militant forms of jihad Permitting of long-term peace with non-Muslims Abandonment of forced conversion Strict rules on conduct and choice of targets