1. Motivation AP Psych Myers, Ch. 12 Aron Ralston Aron Ralston – cut off own arm while trapped in canyon (127 Hours)127 Hours What factors may have motivated his actions?

2. Motivation  a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior Motivation Instinct theory Drive- reduction theory Incentive theory Arousal theory Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

3. Instinct Theory  Behaviors are motivated by instincts  a complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned  Evolutionary theory on motivation  Genes predispose species- typical behavior  Rooting reflex  Fight/flight  Reproduction

4. Drive-Reduction Theory  physiological need  an aroused tension state (a drive)  motivates an organism to satisfy the need.  Desire to maintain homeostasis  Constant, balanced internal state  Pushed by needs, pulled by incentives  Environmental stimuli that motivate behavior

5. Incentive Theory  Motivation stems from external stimuli (incentives)  You may not be hungry, but the smell of cupcakes from the kitchen motivates you to eat one.  You study hard in school to get A’s, because if you get all A’s this year, your parents will buy you a car.  Explains why we can be motivated to act even when there isn’t a biological need or drive.

6. Arousal Theory  Too little or too much stimulation can motivate people to find an optimum state of arousal  Ex: curiosity-driven behaviors  “optimum” level varies between individuals  Yerkes-Dodson law – increased levels of arousal will improve performance, but only until the optimal level is reached, then performance begins to suffer.  “optimal” level varies between tasks and individuals.

7. Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs  Prioritized pyramid of human needs that motivate behaviors  beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs become active.  Not universal set but a basic framework for motivation Critics too rigid, some behaviors are motivated by multiple needs some needs can eclipse others depending on the individual some needs are left out

8. Tier 3: Needing to Belong  Humans are social animals  need connections to other people. Why?  Evolution  Happiness  Social acceptance  Power of relationships  Pain of ostracism  Health

9. Quiz Yourself  Need is to _________ as drive is to _________. a. Motivation; incentive b. Instinct; incentive c. Thirst; basal metabolic rate d. Food; hunger  According to Maslow, esteem needs must be met before one is prompted to satisfy… a. Safety needs b. Self-actualization needs c. Belongingness needs d. Physiological needs

10. Maslow’s Hierarchy  In groups, complete…  Worksheet – Identify the tier.  What Maslow Misses  Article excerpt  Questions Crash Course - Motivation

11. HUNGER “Hunger is the most urgent form of poverty.” – Alliance to End Hunger, 2002

12. The Physiology of Hunger  Cannon and Washburn (1912)  swallowed a balloon to measure stomach contractions  the stomach contracts when the body feels hunger pangs  Hunger can persist even without a stomach…rats and humans without stomachs still “feel” hunger.

13. Body Chemistry and Hunger  Glucose  Blood sugar that provides the major source of energy to body tissues  Low = hunger  Monitored in the brain using signals sent from organs  Appetite hormones  Insulin – regulates glucose  Ghrelin – hunger producing  Leptin – metabolism increasing

14. The Brain and Hunger  Hypothalamus largely controls and monitors hunger. Lateral hypothalamus (Bring) Lower-mid hypothalamus (Depress) StimulationOver-eatingNo eating DamageNo eatingOver-eating

15. Body Chemistry and the Brain  Set point  the point at which an individual’s “weight thermostat” is supposedly set  Predisposed by heredity (adoption and twin studies)  Range of 10% of weight  Can be reset, but difficult (why dieting often fails)  Basal metabolic rate  the body’s resting rate of energy exposure  Less food intake – lower  More food intake – higher

16. Starving for Science  Ancel Keys (1950)  36 male volunteers  Fed half of the required food to maintain weight for 6 months  Rapid weight loss to 25% below starting weight, then slowed weight loss  Conservation of energy  Obsession with food  Lost interest in anything that was not food

17. The Psychology of Hunger  We remember our last meal and anticipate our next.  Paul Rozin and colleagues (1998) tested 2 people with extreme amnesia (could not remember past minute)  presented with first lunch and ate it, 20 minutes later they ate a second lunch when presented, and another 20 minutes later they ate a third lunch when presented  part of knowing when to eat is out memory of our last meal and the anticipation of our next meal.  Taste preferences  Genetic and universal for sweet and salty  Conditioned  Cultural traditions  Naturally avoid unfamiliar foods (evolutionary)  Adaptive (increases survival)

18. Eating Disorders  When psychological factors take precedence over physiological needs and homeostatic pressures  Anorexia nervosa  An eating disorder in which a normal-weight person (usually an adolescent female) diets and becomes significantly (15% or more) underweight, yet, still feeling fat, continues to starve.  Bulimia nervosa  An eating disorder characterized by episodes of overeating, usually of high-calorie foods, followed by vomiting, laxative use, fasting, or excessive exercise.

19. Eating Disorders  Possible causes for eating disorders  Nurture  Possible childhood sexual abuse  Familial traditions of weight emphasis, competition, and achievement  Unrealistic idea of ideal gender identities  Cultural expectations across time  poor body images  Media – fashion, ads, toys, supermodels, celebrities  Nature  Genetics – identical twins are more likely than fraternal twins or siblings to share an eating disorder  Crash Course – Eating Disorders Crash Course – Eating Disorders Diathesis-stress model Behaviors are a result of both biological (nature) factors and life experiences (nurture).

20. Quiz Yourself  In an attempt to lose some of the weight she gained from binge eating, Melissa uses laxatives and exercises until she is exhausted. Melissa most clearly demonstrates symptoms of… a. Anorexia nervosa b. Bulimia nervosa c. A possible tumor near the hypothalmus d. Hypermetabolism  The ____________ in the brain has been found to be influential in the regulation of hunger. a. Pons b. Thalamus c. Hypothalamus d. Frontal lobe

21. Sexual Motivation Sexual motivation is the result of a desire, not a biological need. However, sexual reproduction is needed for the survival of a species.

22. The Kinsey Reports  Alfred Kinsey (1948, 1953) – surveyed Americans (well-educated white urbanites) on their sexual preferences and activities  Most men and women reported having premarital sex  Most women and virtually all men reported having masturbated  Women who reported masturbating to orgasm before marriage seldom had difficulties experiencing orgasm after marriage  Enormously varied sexual behaviors

23. The Sexual Response Cycle  The four stages of sexual responding (similar in males and females), developed by Masters and Johnson (1966)  Refractory period – a resting period after orgasm, during which a man cannot achieve another orgasm.  Sexual disorder – a problem that consistently impairs sexual arousal or functioning  Can be treated with behavioral therapy or medication

24. Hormones and Sexual Behavior  Estrogen  Sex hormone secreted in greater amounts by females  Testosterone  most important of the male sex hormones  Greater in males  Manufactured in the testes of males, after castration males lose much of their sexual interest

25. The Psychology of Sex  Result of a desire, not a need. External StimuliImagined Stimuli Men and women can be aroused equally  different parts of the brain Repeated exposure can desensitize sexual activities Habituation (lessening) of emotional responses Violence against women or the idea that women enjoy rape (if material is sexually violent) Devaluation of and unhappiness with partner or relationship Finding average women and men less attractive Unrealistic expectations of sexual activities Fantasies and dreams can arouse men and women Men (gay/straight) fantasize about sex more than women

26. Adolescent Sexuality  Puberty and sexual maturation  Varies with culture and time  Teen pregnancy in 20 th century America  why no contraception use?  Ignorance  Guilt  Minimal communication about birth control  Alcohol use  Mass media portrayals of unprotected sex

27. Adolescent Sexuality  Sexually Transmitted Infections  2/3 new infections in people under 25  Confusion/ignorance about condoms  Several predictors of teen sexual restraint:  High intelligence  Religiosity  Father presence  Participation in service learning programs

28. Sexual Orientation  An enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one’s own sex (homosexual) or the other sex (heterosexual)  All cultures in all times have been predominantly heterosexual  evolutionary?  Homosexuality  3-4% of men and 1-2% of women identify as homosexual (anonymous self reporting)  Face cultural, societal, and political backlash  higher rates of depression and risk of suicide  Neither willfully chosen or willfully changed  Women’s sexuality seems to be more fluid and changeable than men’s  APA dropped homosexuality from its list of “mental illnesses” in 1973

29. Origins of Sexual Orientation  Not psychologically caused.  More common in some populations but unclear why  more focus on biological factors of homosexuality  Cross-sections of the hypothalamus from homosexual and heterosexual males and females (blind study)  reliably larger cell cluster in heterosexual males than in females and homosexual males  Not surprising that there are brain differences between homosexual and heterosexual people however questions remain… When? How?

30. Genes and Sexual Orientation  Evidence to suggest genetic influence on sexual orientation  Runs in families  Identical twins are more likely than fraternal twins to share the same sexual orientation.  Sexual attraction in fruit flies has been manipulated through gene experimentation  Why does homosexuality exist from an evolutionary perspective?  Genes can remain present in kin  Maternal genetics?  General consensus that NATURE not nurture contributes to homosexuality.  Crash Course - Sex Crash Course - Sex

31. Motivation at Work

32. Industrial/Organizational (I/O) Psychology  The application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces  Personnel psychology – a subfield of I/O psychology that focuses on employee recruitment, selection, placement, training, appraisal and development  Organizational psychology – a subfield of I/O psychology that examines organizational influences on worker satisfaction and productivity and facilitates organizational change  Flow – a completely involved, focused state of consciousness, with diminished awareness of self and time, resulting from optimal engagement of one’s skills.

33. Quiz Yourself  Which of the following is FALSE concerning sexual orientation? a. Virtually all cultures in all times have been predominantly heterosexual. b. The environmental factors that influence sexual orientation are presently unknown. c. Homosexuality rates are higher than average among the identical twin brothers of homosexuals. d. With the help of a therapist, most people find it easy to change their sexual orientation.  Which of the following is FALSE concerning the sexual response cycle? a. It is experienced in the same order for men and women. b. The refractory period is much shorter in females than in males. c. The refractory period begins at the end of the resolution phase. d. The correct order of phases is excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution.