1. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Chapter 6 Learning

2. What is learning? See handout 6-2 With your aisle partner, discuss whether you think each of the scenarios is an example of learning. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

3. Learning Learning – A process through which experience produces lasting change in behavior or mental processes Hilgard and Bower’s definition: the relatively permanent change in behavior in a given situation brought about be repeated experiences in that situation, provided that the behavior can’t be explained by native response tendencies, maturation, or temporary states (fatigue, drugs, etc.)

4. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Learning In this chapter we will not learn about: Instincts: they are innate, NOT learned Maturation: normal stages will be covered in an upcoming chapter Memory: covered in a previous chapter

5. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Simple Learning Mere exposure effect – Learned preference for stimuli to which we have been previously exposed (e.g. advertising) Habituation Habituation Habituation – Learning not to respond to repeated presentation of a stimulus

6. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 stimuli and responses stimuli and responses Behavioral learning – learning achieved through manipulation of stimuli and responses (e.g. classical and operant conditioning)stimuli and responses B. F. Skinner’s behaviorist manifesto: 1.psychology’s concern should be behavior 2.methods should be objective, not introspective 3.goal should be “prediction and control of behavior” rather than understanding of mental events Complex Learning

7. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Essentials of Classical Conditioning Classical ConditioningClassical Conditioning Neutral stimulus – produces no conditioned response (CR) prior to learning (Pavlov)

8. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Essentials of Classical Conditioning Unconditioned response (UCR) Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) Conditioned response (CR) Conditioned stimulus (CS)

9. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Essentials of Classical Conditioning Unconditioned response (UCR) Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) Conditioned response (CR) Conditioned stimulus (CS) The stimulus that elicits an UCR

10. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Essentials of Classical Conditioning Unconditioned response (UCR) Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) Conditioned response (CR) Conditioned stimulus (CS) The response elicited by a UCS without prior learning

11. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Essentials of Classical Conditioning Unconditioned response (UCR) Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) Conditioned response (CR) Conditioned stimulus (CS) A previously neutral stimulus that comes to elicit the CR

12. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Essentials of Classical Conditioning Unconditioned response (UCR) Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) Conditioned response (CR) Conditioned stimulus (CS) A response elicited by a previously neutral stimulus that has become associated with the UCS

13. Classical conditioning Classical conditioning Relax Relax Close your eyes and imagine you are floating in warm ocean waters. RelaxRelax In this scene, what is the UCS, UCR, CS, and CR? Let’s practice this with a handout. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

14. Classical conditioning Acquisition – Initial learning stage; CR (salivating) becomes elicited by the conditioned stimulus (CS) Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

15. Classical Conditioning Classical Conditioning Extinction – Weakening of a conditioned association in the absence of a UCS - many of you no longer respond to the horn. Spontaneous recovery – Reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after a time delay

16. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Acquisition, Extinction, and Spontaneous Recovery (1) Acquisition (CS + UCS) (3) Spontaneous Recovery (CS alone) Rest period (2) Extinction (CS alone) (Time) Trials Strength of the CR (Weak) (Strong)

17. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Classical Conditioning: Generalization and Discrimination Little Albert Little Albert Stimulus generalization: giving a CR to stimuli that are similar to the CS (Little Albert)Little Albert Stimulus discrimination: responding to one stimulus but not to stimuli that are similar

18. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Applications of Classical Conditioning Taste-aversion learning – learning to avoid food after a single experience, if eating it is followed by illness (caveat: if you get sick DIRECTLY after eating a food, you often won’t get taste aversion)

19. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 A Challenge to Pavlov Why are some associations readily learned while others are resistant to learning? Contiguity: the nearer the better The Seahawk-balloon pairing might be too far apart Contingency: the more regular the better The UCS must ALWAYS be paired with the CS during acquisition Novelty: the newer the better It would be hard to make a CS out of the school bell, because you hear it twelve times a day. It’s not new.

20. Association Principle Think of your favorite soup: Now imagine the soup is served to you in an ordinary bowl, but has been stirred by a thoroughly washed, used flyswatter. How much would you like to eat that soup, on a scale of 1=not at all to 9=very much? Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

21. If that flyswatter were brand new, how much would you like to eat the soup, on a scale of 1=not at all to 9=very much? Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

22. If the soup were first stirred with a thoroughly washed but used comb, how much would you like to eat that soup, on a scale of 1=not at all to 9=very much? Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

23. If the soup were served in a thoroughly washed, used dog bowl, how much would you like to eat that soup, on a scale of 1=not at all to 9=very much? Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

24. Of 143 participants… 1.82% gave a four or lower 2.58% gave a four or lower 3.76% gave a four or lower 4.71% gave a four or lower Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

25. Association principle Linking two events that occur close together but are unrelated Association principle applies in both CC and OC Accounts for superstition Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

26. Before we get to operant conditioning… Can I have two volunteers for an experiment? You will need to leave the room for a few moments as I prepare the experiment. Shaping Shaping Shaping Shaping – reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer versions of the desired behavior. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

27. The Skinner Box

28. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 How Do We Learn New Behaviors by Operant Conditioning? Trial-and-error learning – Learner gradually discovers the correct response by attempting many behaviors and noting which ones produce the desired consequences

29. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 How Do We Learn New Behaviors by Operant Conditioning? operant conditioning operant conditioning In operant conditioning, the consequences of behavior, such as rewards and punishments, influence the chance that our behavior will occur againoperant conditioning

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31. Skinner’s Radical Behaviorism B.F. Skinner believed that the most powerful influences on behaviors are their consequences Based ideas on Thorndike’s Law of Effect: behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.

32. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Power of Reinforcement Positive reinforcers Positive reinforcers Positive reinforcers Positive reinforcers – Stimulus presented after a response that increases the probability of that response happening again Negative reinforcers Negative reinforcers Negative reinforcers Negative reinforcers – Removal of an unpleasant stimulus, contingent on a particular behavior

33. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Contingencies of Reinforcement

34. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Power of Reinforcement Primary reinforcers – Reinforcers, such as food and sex, that are innate because of their biological value

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36. The Power of Reinforcement Secondary reinforcers – Stimuli, such as money or tokens, that acquire their reinforcing power by their learned association with primary reinforcers (also called conditioned reinforcers)

37. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Problem of Punishment Punishment – A stimulus which diminishes the strength of the response it follows How does this differ from negative reinforcement?

38. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Punishment vs. Negative Reinforcement Loud NoisePress Lever Loud Noise Removed Loud Noise Applied Response Consequence Negative Reinforcement Punishment No Noise

39. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Problem of Punishment Positive punishment – The application of an aversive stimulus after a response Omission training (negative punishment) – The removal of an appetitive stimulus after a response

40. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Four Kinds of Consequences Positive or appetitive Negative or aversive STIMULUS - Remove Negative Reinforcement Aspirin curing headache causes more aspirin use Omission Training Missing dinner leads to less staying out late + Present Positive Reinforcement Bonus for working hard leads to more hard work Punishment Getting speeding ticket leads to less speeding

41. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

42. CC or OC

43. Let’s practice With an aisle partner, complete the back of the handout I gave you last week. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

44. Yay! Bill Murray Bill Murray If you know the difference between punishment and negative reinforcement, you are smarter than Bill Murray.Bill Murray Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

45. Contingencies of Reinforcement Continuous reinforcement – Reinforcement schedule in which all desired responses are reinforced Partial reinforcement – Reinforcement schedule in which some, but not all, desired responses are reinforced (also called intermittent reinforcement)

46. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Schedules of Partial Reinforcement Ratio schedules – Provide reward after a certain number of responses; produce higher response rates than… Interval schedules – Provide reward after a certain time interval Fixed Ratio (FR) Fixed Interval (FI) Variable Ratio (VR) Variable Interval (VI)

47. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed Ratio (FR) Fixed Interval (FI) Variable Ratio (VR) Variable Interval (VI) Rewards appear after a certain set number of responses e.g. factory workers getting paid after every 10 cases of product are completed Effect: activity slows after reinforcer and then picks up; goes extinct quickly without constant reinforcement

48. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed Ratio (FR) Fixed Interval (FI) Variable Ratio (VR) Variable Interval (VI) Rewards appear after a certain number of responses, but that number varies from trial to trial e.g. slot machine pay- offs Effect: responding rate is high and stable; most resistant to extinction

49. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed Ratio (FR) Fixed Interval (FI) Variable Ratio (VR) Variable Interval (VI) Rewards appear after a certain fixed amount of time, regardless of number of responses e.g. weekly or monthly paychecks Effect: activity increases as deadline nears; can cause fast extinction

50. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed Ratio (FR) Fixed Interval (FI) Variable Ratio (VR) Variable Interval (VI) Rewards appear after a certain amount of time, but that amount varies from trial to trial e.g. random visits from the boss who delivers praise Effect: steady activity results, good resistance to extinction

51. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 As a rule: Variable is more resistant to extinction than fixed Ratio is more resistant to extinction than interval

52. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Reinforcement schedules

53. Let’s try some practice figuring out reinforcement schedules Handout Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

54. The Use and Abuse of Punishment Power usually disappears when threat of punishment is removed Punishment Often triggers aggression May inhibit learning new and better responses Is often applied unequally Reinforcement should be chosen over punishment whenever possible

55. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Alternatives to Punishment Reinforcing preferred activities Premack principle: a more preferred activity can reinforce a less preferred activity Shaping

56. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Operant and Classical Conditioning Compared Operant and Classical Conditioning Compared Classical conditioning involves the association of two stimuli (UCS + CS) before the response or behavior Operant conditioning involves a reinforcing (reward) or punishing stimulus after a response or behavior A videoA video A video that summarizes classical and operant conditioning. A video

57. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 How Does Cognitive Psychology Explain Learning? According to cognitive psychology, some forms of learning must be explained as changes in mental processes, rather than as changes in behavior alone

58. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 How Does Cognitive Psychology Explain Learning? Insight learning Insight learning Insight learning Insight learning – Problem solving occurs by means of a sudden reorganization of perceptions Cognitive maps Cognitive maps Cognitive maps Cognitive maps – A mental representation of physical space (contrasted with chained association [knowing the turns])

59. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Cognitive Maps

60. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Observational Learning: Bandura’s Challenge to Behaviorism Observational learning Observational learning Observational learning Observational learning – Form of cognitive learning in which new responses are acquired after watching others’ behavior and the consequences of their behavior—can be prosocial or antisocial Bandura’s Doll ExperimentBandura’s Doll Experiment; more video video Bandura’s Doll Experimentvideo Latent learning: learning you didn’t know you’d learned until required to apply it.

61. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Brain Mechanisms and Learning Long-term potentiation – Physical changes that strengthen the synapses in groups of nerve cells; the neural basis of learning

62. Operant and Classical Conditioning In action action Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

63. End of Chapter 6