1. CIM3681 - PKI011 Public-key Encryption and Hash Functions Cryptography and Network Security Third Edition by William Stallings Modified from lecture slides by Lawrie Brown

2. CIM3681 - PKI01 2 Public Key Cryptography and RSA Every Egyptian received two names, which were known respectively as the true name and the good name, or the great name and the little name; and while the good or little name was made public, the true or great name appears to have been carefully concealed. —The Golden Bough, Sir James George Frazer

3. CIM3681 - PKI01 3 Public Key Cryptography and RSA Principles of Public-key Crytosystems  Private-Key Cryptography  Public-Key Characteristics  Public-Key Cryptosystems 公開鑰匙密碼系統  Security of Public Key Schemes RSA  Description of the Algorithm  RSA example  RSA Security

4. CIM3681 - PKI01 4 Private-Key Cryptography traditional private/secret/single key cryptography uses one key shared by both sender and receiver if this key is disclosed 透露 communications are compromised 危害 also is symmetric, parties are equal hence does not protect sender from receiver forging a message & claiming is sent by sender (repudiation 否認 )

5. CIM3681 - PKI01 5 Public-Key Cryptography probably most significant advance in the 3000 year history of cryptography uses two keys – a public & a private key Asymmetric 不對稱的 since parties are not equal uses clever application of number theoretic concepts to function Complements 補足 rather than replaces private key crypto

6. CIM3681 - PKI01 6 Public-Key Cryptography public-key/two-key/asymmetric cryptography involves the use of two keys:  a public-key, which may be known by anybody, and can be used to encrypt messages, and verify 証實 signatures  a private-key, known only to the recipient 受信者, used to decrypt messages, and sign (create) signatures is asymmetric because  those who encrypt messages or verify signatures cannot decrypt messages or create signatures

7. CIM3681 - PKI01 7 Public-Key Cryptography

8. CIM3681 - PKI01 8 Why Public-Key Cryptography? developed to address two key issues:  key distribution – how to have secure communications in general without having to trust a KDC with your key  digital signatures 數位的簽字 – how to verify a message comes intact from the claimed sender public invention due to Whitfield Diffie & Martin Hellman at Stanford Uni in 1976  known earlier in classified community

9. CIM3681 - PKI01 9 Public-Key Characteristics Public-Key algorithms rely on two keys with the characteristics that it is:  computationally infeasible 不可實行的 to find decryption key knowing only algorithm & encryption key  computationally easy to en/decrypt messages when the relevant 相應的 (en/decrypt) key is known  either of the two related keys can be used for encryption, with the other used for decryption (in some schemes)

10. CIM3681 - PKI01 10 Public-Key Cryptosystems

11. CIM3681 - PKI01 11 Public-Key Applications can classify uses into 3 categories:  encryption/decryption (provide secrecy 保密 )  digital signatures (provide authentication 証明, 鑒 定 )  key exchange (of session 次對話端 keys) some algorithms are suitable for all uses, others are specific to one

12. CIM3681 - PKI01 12 Security of Public Key Schemes like private key schemes brute force exhaustive search attack is always theoretically possible but keys used are too large (>512bits) security relies on a large enough difference in difficulty between easy (en/decrypt) and hard (cryptanalyse) problems more generally the hard problem is known, its just made too hard to do in practise requires the use of very large numbers hence is slow compared to private key schemes

13. CIM3681 - PKI01 13 RSA by Rivest, Shamir & Adleman of MIT in 1977 best known & widely used public-key scheme based on exponentiation in a finite (Galois) field over integers modulo a prime  nb. exponentiation takes O((log n) 3 ) operations (easy) uses large integers (eg. 1024 bits) security due to cost of factoring large numbers  nb. factorization takes O(e log n log log n ) operations (hard)

14. CIM3681 - PKI01 14 RSA Key Setup each user generates a public/private key pair by: selecting two large primes at random - p, q computing their system modulus N=p.q  note ø(N)=(p-1)(q-1) selecting at random the encryption key e where 1< e<ø(N), gcd(e,ø(N))=1 solve following equation to find decryption key d  e.d=1 mod ø(N) and 0≤d≤N publish their public encryption key: KU={e,N} keep secret private decryption key: KR={d,p,q}

15. CIM3681 - PKI01 15 RSA Use to encrypt a message M the sender:  obtains public key of recipient KU={e,N}  computes: C=M e mod N, where 0≤M<N to decrypt the ciphertext C the owner:  uses their private key KR={d,p,q}  computes: M=C d mod N note that the message M must be smaller than the modulus N (block if needed)

16. CIM3681 - PKI01 16 Why RSA Works because of Euler's Theorem: a ø(n) mod N = 1  where gcd(a,N)=1 in RSA have:  N=p.q  ø(N)=(p-1)(q-1)  carefully chosen e & d to be inverses mod ø(N)  hence e.d=1+k.ø(N) for some k hence : C d = (M e ) d = M 1+k.ø(N) = M 1.(M ø(N) ) q = M 1.(1) q = M 1 = M mod N

17. CIM3681 - PKI01 17 RSA Example 1. Select primes: p=17 & q=11 2. Compute n = pq =17×11=187 3. Compute ø(n)=(p–1)(q-1)=16×10=160 4. Select e : gcd(e,160)=1; choose e=7 5. Determine d : de=1 mod 160 and d < 160 Value is d=23 since 23×7=161= 10×160+1 6. Publish public key KU={7,187} 7. Keep secret private key KR={23,17,11}

18. CIM3681 - PKI01 18 RSA Example cont sample RSA encryption/decryption is: given message M = 88 (nb. 88<187 ) encryption: C = 88 7 mod 187 = 11 decryption: M = 11 23 mod 187 = 88

19. CIM3681 - PKI01 19 Exponentiation can use the Square and Multiply Algorithm a fast, efficient algorithm for exponentiation concept is based on repeatedly squaring base and multiplying in the ones that are needed to compute the result look at binary representation of exponent only takes O(log 2 n) multiples for number n  eg. 7 5 = 7 4.7 1 = 3.7 = 10 mod 11  eg. 3 129 = 3 128.3 1 = 5.3 = 4 mod 11

20. CIM3681 - PKI01 20 Exponentiation

21. CIM3681 - PKI01 21 RSA Key Generation users of RSA must:  determine two primes at random - p, q  select either e or d and compute the other primes p,q must not be easily derived from modulus N=p.q  means must be sufficiently large  typically guess and use probabilistic test exponents e, d are inverses, so use Inverse algorithm to compute the other

22. CIM3681 - PKI01 22 RSA Security three approaches to attacking RSA:  brute force key search (infeasible given size of numbers)  mathematical attacks (based on difficulty of computing ø(N), by factoring modulus N)  timing attacks (on running of decryption)

23. CIM3681 - PKI01 23 Factoring Problem mathematical approach takes 3 forms:  factor N=p.q, hence find ø(N) and then d  determine ø(N) directly and find d  find d directly currently believe all equivalent to factoring  have seen slow improvements over the years as of Aug-99 best is 130 decimal digits (512) bit with GNFS  biggest improvement comes from improved algorithm cf “Quadratic Sieve” to “Generalized Number Field Sieve”  barring dramatic breakthrough 1024+ bit RSA secure ensure p, q of similar size and matching other constraints

24. CIM3681 - PKI01 24 Timing Attacks developed in mid-1990’s exploit timing variations in operations  eg. multiplying by small vs large number  or IF's varying which instructions executed infer operand size based on time taken RSA exploits time taken in exponentiation countermeasures  use constant exponentiation time  add random delays  blind values used in calculations

25. CIM3681 - PKI01 25 Summary have considered:  principles of public-key cryptography  RSA algorithm, implementation, security