1. Thermodynamics

2. Intensive and extensive properties Intensive properties: – System properties whose magnitudes are independent of the total amount, instead, they are dependent on the concentration of substances Extensive properties – Properties whose value depends on the amount of substance present

3. State and Nonstate Functions Euler’s Criterion State functions – Pressure – Internal energy Nonstate functions – Work – Heat

6. Energy Capacity to do work Internal energy is the sum of the total various kinetic and potential energy distributions in a system.

16. Heat The energy transferred between one object and another due to a difference in temperature. In a molecular viewpoint, heating is: – The transfer of energy that makes use of disorderly molecular motion Thermal motion – The disorderly motion of molecules

17. Exothermic and endothermic Exothermic process – A process that releases heat into its surroundings Endothermic process – A process wherein energy is acquired from its surroundings as heat.

19. Work Motion against an opposing force. The product of an intensity factor (pressure, force, etc) and a capacity factor (distance, electrical charge, etc) In a molecular viewpoint, work is: – The transfer of energy that makes use of organized motion

34. Free expansion IsothermalIsochoricIsobaricAdiabatic ΔUΔU0q+w q w rev 00 w irrev -p ext ΔV

35. Adiabatic Changes q=0! Therefore ΔU = w In adiabatic changes, we can expect the temperature to change. Adiabatic changes can be expressed in terms of two steps: the change in volume at constant temperature, followed by a change in temperature at constant volume.

36. Adiabatic changes The overall change in internal energy of the gas only depends on the second step since internal energy is dependent on the temperature. ΔU ad = w ad = nC v ΔT for irreversible conditions

37. Adiabatic changes How to relate P, V, and T? during adiabatic changes? Use the following equations! V i T i c = V f T f c – Where c = C v /R P i V i γ = P f V f γ – Where γ = C p /C v

38. Adiabatic changes

41. Free expansion Isothermal IsochoricIsobaricAdiabatic ΔUΔU0nC v ΔTq+ww qnC v ΔT nC p ΔT or –w irrev 0 w rev 00 w irrev 0-p ext ΔV0 =-nC v ΔT =-p ext ΔV

42. Exercise 1.10 g of N 2 is obtained at 17°C under 2 atm. Calculate ΔU, q, and w for the following processes of this gas, assuming it behaves ideally: (5 pts each) a)Reversible expansion to 10 L under 2 atm b)Adiabatic free expansion c)Isothermal, reversible, compression to 2 L d)Isobaric, isothermal, irreversible expansion to 0.015 m 3 under 2 atm e)Isothermal free expansion 2.(Homework) 2 moles of a certain ideal gas is allowed to expand adiabatically and reversibly to 5 atm pressure from an initial state of 20°C and 15 atm. What will be the final temperature and volume of the gas? What is the change in internal energy during this process? Assume a C p of 8.58 cal/mole K (10 pts) 1 cal = 4.184 J

47. Enthalpy As can be seen in the previous derivation, at constant pressure: ΔH = nC p ΔT

48. Relating ΔH and ΔU in a reaction that produces or consumes gas ΔH = ΔU + pΔV, When a reaction produces or consumes gas, the change in volume is essentially the volume of gas produced or consumed. pΔV = Δn g RT, assuming constant temperature during the reaction Therefore: › ΔH = ΔU + Δn g RT

49. Dependence of Enthalpy on Temperature The variation of the enthalpy of a substance with temperature can sometimes be ignored under certain conditions or assumptions, such as when the temperature difference is small. However, most substances in real life have enthalpies that change with the temperature. When it is necessary to account for this variation, an approximate empirical expression can be utilized

50. Dependence of Enthalpy on Temperature Where the empirical parameters a, b, and c are independent of temperature and are specific for each substance Integrate resulting equation for C p appropriately in order to get ΔH

51. Free expansion IsothermalIsochoricIsobaricAdiabatic ΔUΔU0nC v ΔTq+ww qnC v ΔT nC p ΔT or – w irrev 0 w rev 00 w irrev 0-p ext ΔV0 =-nC v ΔT =-p ext ΔV ΔHΔH 0 (for ideal gas) ΔUΔU =ΔU + pΔV =nC p ΔT Adiabatic

52. Problem Calculate the change in molar enthalpy of N 2 when it is heated from 25°C to 100°C. N 2 (g) C p,m (J/mol K) a =28.58; b = 3.77x10 -3 K; c = -0.50 x10 5 K 2

53. Problem Water is heated to boiling under a pressure of 1.0 atm. When an electric current of 0.50 A from a 12V supply is passed for 300 s through a resistance in thermal contact with it, it is found that 0.798 g of water is vaporized. Calculate the molar internal energy and enthalpy changes at the boiling point. * 1 A V s = 1 J

54. Thermochemistry The study of energy transfer as heat during chemical reactions. This is where endothermic and exothermic reactions come in. Standard enthalpy changes of various kinds of reactions have already been determined and tabulated.

55. Standard Enthalpy Changes ΔH Ɵ Defined as the change in enthalpy for a process wherein the initial and final substances are in their standard states – The standard state of a substance at a specified temperature is its pure form at 1 bar Standard enthalpy changes are taken to be isothermal changes, except in some cases to be discussed later.

56. Enthalpies of Physical Change The standard enthalpy change that accompanies a change of physical state is called the standard enthalpy of transition Examples: standard enthalpy of vaporization (Δ vap H Ɵ ) and the standard enthalpy of fusion (Δ fus H Ɵ )

59. Enthalpies of chemical change These are enthalpy changes that accompany chemical reactions. We utilize a thermochemical equation for such enthalpies, a combination of a chemical equation and the corresponding change in standard enthalpy. Where ΔH Ɵ is the change in enthalpy when the reactants in their standard states change to the products in their standard states.

62. Hess’s Law Standard enthalpies of individual reactions can be combined to acquire the enthalpy of another reaction. This is an application of the First Law named the Hess’s Law “The standard enthalpy of an overall reaction is the sum of the standard enthalpies of the individual reactions into which a reaction may be divided.”

63. Hess’s Law: Example

64. Standard Enthalpies of Formation The standard enthalpy of formation, denoted as Δ f H Ɵ, is the standard reaction enthalpy for the formation of 1 mole of the compound from its elements in their reference states. The reference state of an element is its most stable state at the specified temperature and 1 bar. Example: Benzene formation 6 C (s, graphite) + 3 H 2 (g)  C 6 H 6 (l) Δ f H Ɵ = 49 kJ/mol

67. The temperature dependence of reaction enthalpies dH = C p dT From this equation, when a substance is heated from T 1 to T 2, its enthalpy changes from the enthalpy at T 1 to the enthalpy at T 2.

69. Kirchhoff’s Law It is normally a good approximation to assume that Δ r C p Ɵ is independent of temperature over a limited temperature range, but when the temperature dependence of heat capacities must be taken into account, we can utilize another equation

70. Dependence of Enthalpy on Temperature Where the empirical parameters a, b, and c are independent of temperature and are specific for each substance Integrate resulting equation for C p appropriately in order to get ΔH

71. Kirchhoff’s Law: Example

72. Exercise