1. Skill acquisition Motor skill overview Stages of skill learning and coaching Skill classification Types of instruction and practice Page 273 of your books

2. Motor skill overview What makes a person skilled? What do we see in that person?

3. Definitions A descriptive definition of a skill looks at the outcome of the act and asks, “how was that done?” A skilled act therefore is one that achieves a desired goal with accuracy and economy or efficiency i.e. the performer looks good

4. Definition This definition is a more complete view of a skill since it looks at the processes that the performer went through in order to achieve the goal. It takes the descriptive definition and asks “what did the performer go through to learn the sequencing and timing of subroutines or order to get such accuracy and economy of effort?”

5. A skilled act should be seen as a whole plan that specifies the sequence and timing of the movement parts. This “whole’ is referred to as an executive programme an the ‘movement parts’ as subroutines. Executive programme: – Gives overall direction to the movement – Orders the subroutine sequence

6. Subroutines: – Are the fixed parts that make up the skill – They follow a set order for that particular skill Consider the executive programme of the chip shot in golf Grip Size of back swing Force of swing Weight transferFoot placement Head downArms straight Follow through

7. Sub routine coordination All executive or motor programmes depend on the proper coordination of subroutines with respect to each other You need to master each of the associated subroutines of the executive programme It is the executive programme that controls the sequence and timing of subroutines

8. Practicing the subroutines of an executive programme strengthens the ‘whole performance’ and allows it to become controlled, smooth, efficient and look easy This allows people to concentrate on other aspects of their performance such a tactics or complexity of environment or task.

9. A skilled performance flows smoothly from one subroutine to the next We learn the correct order of the subroutines through doing (practicing) and observing skilful performers Feedback helps us further learn sequencing of subroutines

10. Pacing Pacing refers to how you time the whole movement Internal pacing occurs when you are in control of the timing and sequencing of the subroutines External pacing occurs when outside factors (opposition) governs the timing & sequencing of subroutines

11. Novice verse advanced performers Novice performers often add unnecessary movements into the performance Advanced performers executive programme can be so well developed that is has been reduced to the level of a subroutine

12. Skill classification Performance of a motor skill requires the correct co-ordination, timing and sequencing of subroutines. In order to achieve this many pieces of information must be taken in processed, translated and turned into a performance

13. This performance is usually modified according to the results These results may come from internal or external sources ReceptorsTranslators Effectors (muscles) feedback Simple closed loop of human processing It utilises a feedback system to monitor effector (muscle) action and uses this to make future adjustments

14. Open loop An open loop is a system whereby a set sequence is followed i.e. muscles do what the Central nervous system asks of them in a prescribed order. Display Sensory system Perceptual mechanism Decision mechanism Effector mechanism Muscular system Response Internal feedback External feedback

15. Example of a tennis serve The response (poor toss) would be seen (internal feedback) or may heard from the coaches response (external feedback) and sent to the sensory system Equally the muscles would send their movement pattern back to sensory system and effectors to be modified for the next toss Display Sensory system Perceptual mechanism Decision mechanism Effector mechanism Muscular system Response Internal feedback External feedback

16. The brain is processing information in order to produce a correctly sequenced and timed response to a situation Thousand of pieces of information from internal and external sources are collated, filtered, processed and acted upon throughout all parts of the movement. This can happen at incomprehensible speeds which looks like a smooth performance is a skill performer This is not necessarily the case in a unskilled performer

17. Display is the physical environment in which the skill is performed Stimuli are specific aspects of the display that of interest to skill execution – Irrelevant stimuli are ideally filtered out and not attended to. This is an important skill to develop as you become more skilled Perceptual mechanism allows for the interpretation of sensory input, i.e. “what does this mean?” it allows you to distinguish between stimuli since some are more significant than others. Finally it codes the input ready for the decision mechanism (sorts and codes information).

18. Decision mechanism equates to the translators from the simple closed loop model It translates information for the effector to act on. Here strategies for action are formulated (“what do I do?”) Effector mechanism this section organises the decision to allow the muscle to act upon it The muscles must be organised to fire in the correct sequence with the correct timing and with the required force given the skill

19. Muscular system & response Impulses are received from the effector mechanism so the skill may be executed thereby producing a response or movement As a performer becomes more skilled as a result of practice, each part of the Human Information Processing Model also becomes more efficient in terms of filtering information, anticipating responses, cueing responses and initiating an action that is more appropriate to the situation. Equally they are better able to make adjustments during skill performance as a result of both internal and external feedback

20. Feedback What is Feedback? – Information about how well the effectors have performed in executing a movement.

21. What is the purpose of Feedback? To monitor and modify the next response according to the outcome of the initial movement. It enhances the learning of skills.

22. Internal Feedback Comes from receptors within the body E.g. muscles (“It doesn’t feel right!”) External Feedback  Comes from audible, verbal or visual sources.  E.g. the sound of the starting gun in a sprint race

23. Knowledge of Results Information received about the outcome of your performance E.g. the ball was in/out Knowledge of Performance  Feedback about the actual performance of a skill  E.g. My leg was not extended correctly

24. Positive Feedback The successful performance tells you that the skill execution was correct E.g. you score a goal Negative Feedback  The unsuccessful performance tells you that the skill was incorrect  E.g. you miss a goal

25. Phases of learning Everyone goes through different phases of learning when learning a new skill. How long you spend at each phase depends on the things we have already mentioned- practice, feedback, personal characteristics, transfer of learning etc.

26. Cognitive Phase This is known as the planning phase To find out what is required to perform the skill, the sequencing and timing of sub- routines

27. Cognitive Phase To pass through this stage quickly the performer needs: Immediate feedback Detailed feedback Knowledge on how the skill is performed To see the skill performed There are large number of errors made at this stage of learning, which must be corrected for the performer by a coach or instructor

28. Associative Phase This is also known as the practice phase What do you suppose is the main feature of this phase of learning? Practicing the skills associated with the task. Learning to sequence and time movements

29. Associative Phase The amount of time spent in this stage of learning depends on: Quality of feedback Motivation of the performer Past experience and existing skills How complex the activity is

30. Associative Phase There are fewer and smaller errors made at this stage of learning The performer is able to detect and correct some of the errors themselves This stage takes place over a long period of time

31. Autonomous phase This is known as the automatic or perfection phase What do you suppose is the main feature is this phase of learning? The skill is performed without ‘thinking’ and with very few errors This frees up the nervous system to deal with other factors, e.g. strategy

32. Autonomous phase The advantages of this stage of learning are Less nervous system (mental) control Less likely to be distracted, e.g. By a crowd Speed and efficiency is increased You can begin to dictate to an opponent

33. Autonomous phase In order to stay at the autonomous level, you must continually practice. Sometimes it is necessary to go back to the cognitive stage if the performance of the skill becomes poor How can you tell that someone is at the autonomous stage? The skill will appear effortless and controlled They can dictate the moves of the opposition via their skill level

34. Practice methods There are four main instruction and practice techniques we will consider A.Massed and distributed practice B.Whole and part learning C.Drill and problem solving D.Mental and physical practice

35. Massed and distributed practice Massed practice is performing the skill over and over without rest until it is achieved Distributed practice is performing the skill with rest sessions in between, until the skill is learned What could be the risks associated with mass practice? Fatigue, poor technique, boredom, injury, frustration

36. Massed practice Massed practice can be of benefit to certain types of people, and skills a.Highly motivated b.Low energy demand tasks c.Simple skills, e.g. throwing

37. Distributed practice Distributed practice is often the preferred method when: a.In the early stages of learning b.Energy demands are high c.Skill is complex d.Performer is not motivated e.Task is boring

38. Whole and Part learning Whole learning is when the skill is taught in its entirety, i.e. the whole movement Part learning is when the skill is broken down into its associated parts or sub-routines These parts are learned

39. Volleyball serve Parts associated with the whole skill of the volleyball serve Ball toss Stance Weight transfer Arm swing (contact and follow-through)

40. Advantages Part learning The performer can learn each key element and focus on an individual component as part of training, e.g. Breathing technique in swimming Whole learning Good for simple skills that cannot be broken down into parts

41. Whole-part learning Many coaches prefer to us whole-part learning This involves learning the parts at some point and at other times practicing the whole skill

42. Drill and problem solving Drill learning is learning a skill through repetition (similar to massed practice) Problem solving is learning through investigation, experience or discovery

43. Drill learning Drill learning tends to be best suited to closed skills, because: There are no external variables to be considered, e.g. Opposition, weather etc Therefore the skill can be drilled without variation

44. Problem solving Problem solving is best suited to open skills because often creative solutions are required in the performance of open skills due to their unpredictability

45. Mental and physical practice Physical practice is what we are all familiar with The skill is performed by physical active involvement Mental practice is performing the skill in your mind without physical movement. It is good in the rest phases of distributed practice

46. Mental practice Typical activities used as part of mental practice include: Watching a video Mental imagery Reading and listening to instruction Mental practice works effectively when placed in the rest intervals associated with distributed practice