1. Leisure, Sport and Tourism: Politics, Policy and Planning A.J. Veal Chapter 2: Political Ideologies

2. Definitions Ideology: ‘A system of ideas concerning phenomena, especially those of social life; the manner of thinking of a class or an individual’ (SOED) Internally consistent sets of ideas about how society should be run (Veal) NB. ‘Ideological’ sometimes has negative connotations

3. Relevance? Understanding our place in history Pre-modern societies: – spiritual values, goals and regulation – hereditary class and status systems – aristocracy and monarchy + theocracy Modern societies: – 18 th century onwards – humanitarian values and ideals – human progress towards a better society – political ideologies (socialism, liberalism etc.) ='grand narratives’ Postmodern societies: – demise of 'grand narratives' – NB collapse of communism in the former Soviet Union etc. – loss of confidence in ideology by ‘the left’ in the West

4. Relevance 2: Current politics Current Western politics: – Parties need to capture the ‘floating voter’ – Movement to the ‘centre’ – Policies guided by opinion polls rather than ideology Current political discourse still uses ideological terms: – References to ‘left’, ‘right’, ‘socialism’, ‘neo-liberalism’ etc.

5. Ideologies covered Conservatism Liberalism/neo-liberalism Marxism Democratic socialism Social democracy/Third Way/communitarianism Feminism Environmentalism Anti-globalism

6. Political spectrum (Fig. 2.1) Conservatism Anarchism Neo- Liberalism Fascism LEFT RIGHT Feminism Radical Reformist Environmentalism Radical Reformist Anti-Globalism

7. Parties, governments, ideologies, UK IdeologyPartyGovt/PMDates ConservatismConservative Party Churchill/Eden/Macmillan/ Douglas-Home/Heath Cameron 1951-64 1970-74 2010- Liberalism/ Neo-liberalism Conservative Party Thatcher/Major1979-97 Marxism/ Communism Communist Party Not in govt- Democratic Socialism Labour PartyAtlee1945-51 Social DemocracyLabour Party Social/Liberal Democrats Wilson/Callaghan Clegg (in coalition) 1964-70, 1974-79 2010- Third WayLabour PartyBlair/Brown1997-2010

8. Parties, govts, ideologies, Australia IdeologyPartyGovt/PMDates ConservatismLiberal Party National Party Menzies/Holt/ McEwen/ Gorton/ McMahon In coalition 1949-72 1975-83 Liberalism/ Neo-liberalism Liberal PartyHoward1996-2007 Marxism/ Communism Communist PartyNot in government Democratic Socialism Australian Labor Party Whitlam1972-75 Social Democracy Aust. Labor Party Aust. Democrats Hawke/Keating1983-96 Third WayAust. Labor PartyBlair/Gillard1997-2010 Environment- alism Greens Aust. Democrats Not in govt-

9. Conservatism Origins: – 19 th century landed, upper class Principles: stability and tradition rather than change acceptance of inequality as natural respect for 'traditional' institution/values – (eg. monarchy, family) pragmatic re. role of government support for voluntarism

10. Conservative Parties UK: Conservative party Australia: National Party + Liberal Party (pre- 1996) USA: Republican Party (but also encompasses neo-liberalism)

11. Conservatism and Leisure, Sport, Tourism Govt support for élite activity and 'excellence‘ Support for voluntarism Govt aid to traditional and rural industries (eg agriculture, regional tourism)

12. (Neo-)Liberalism Origins – Liberalism arose in 19 th century – Desire for freedom – of individual, trade – as reaction against privilege – Later associated with free market principles – hence use of neo- liberalism to indicate right-wing orientation Principles – Freedom of the individual – Belief in the efficacy of competition – Minimization of government interference in markets – Small government – Reduced taxes – Privatisation of state assets

13. Liberal/Neo-Liberals Parties UK: Conservatives under Margaret Thatcher Australia: Liberals under John Howard, Tony Abbott USA: Republicans under Ronald Reagan, George Bush and George W. Bush

14. Liberalism/Neo-Liberalism and Leisure, Sport, Tourism View of leisure, sport, tourism as a business sectors is emphasised User-pays principle Privatisation of operation of leisure/sport/ tourism facilities Support for voluntarism Freedom of individual choice (eg some have advocated de-criminalisation of drug use)

15. Marxism/Neo-Marxism Origins: Marxism: the 19 th century writings of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels Neo-Marxism: 20 th century writings adapting Marxism to later developments in Marxism Principles: Fundamental feature of society is economic relationships Capitalist society characterised by clash of interests between – bourgeoisie (capitalists), who own the means of production (capital) – proletariat (workers) who own only their labour power Capitalists seek to maximise profits by exploiting workers Eventually capitalism will collapse – this should be hastened by workers’ revolutionary action to overthrow capitalist system and take control of means of production

16. Marxism/Neo-Marxism: Parties Communist parties in power : – 1917-89: Russia/Soviet Union – 1945-89: Eastern Europe – Now: China (highly modified), Vietnam, Cuba, N. Korea, some Indian states Decline of communism in Russia and E. Europe shook faith of Marxist/NeoMarxist Western social scientists Rejection of ‘grand narratives’ Marxist/Neo-Marxist theory remains a strong analysis/critique of capitalism

17. Marxism/Neo-Marxism and Leisure, Sport, Tourism Generation of ‘false needs’, by advertising, to create profits Leisure as ‘resistance’ to capitalism (eg. Youth sub-cultures, subversive art Divisiveness, élitism and competitiveness of leisure institutions Public provision provides a ‘human face’ for an oppressive system

18. Democratic Socialism Origins: – Marxism and 19 th century unions but also many earlier workers’ movements Principles: belief in: Equality and fraternity Defence of working class interests vs middle/ruling classes; Sate control of capitalism through ownership/control of key industries State creation of more equality and 'welfare state’ through progressive taxation Change through democratic methods, not by violence Capitalism can be 'tamed’ - gradually replaced by socialism

19. Democratic Socialism: Parties Labour parties in UK, Australia, Europe up to about 1960s Now mostly developed into social democratic parties

20. Democratic Socialism and Leisure, Sport, Tourism Support for state provision of leisure, sport, tourism facilities/services Free/highly subsidised provision, especially for disadvantaged groups

21. Social Democracy and the Third Way Origins: – Compromise between socialism and conservatism – Third Way developed in the 1990s to reshape social democracy Principles: – Seeks more equality, supports state role/welfare state, but – Accepts capitalism will survive – Does not envisage a socialist system – Third Way: adds ‘obligations’ to welfare ‘rights’

22. Social Democracy/Third Way: Parties UK: – Debates in the 1960s/70s moved Labour Party from socialism to social democracy – Third Way: Associated with Tony Blair’s leadership of the Labour Party/Prime Ministership (1997- 2008) Australia: – Australian Labor Party followed approximately the pattern of Labour in Britain USA: – Left wing of the Democratic Party sometimes viewed as social democratic – Third Way associated with President Bill Clinton

23. Social Democracy/Third Way and Leisure, Sport, Tourism Belief in state provision Recreational sport, as a social service: sport for all Emphasis is on access for all at minim um cost, preferably free, to the user. Community arts alternative to professional, élite arts, democratisation of the arts + cultural democracy Support for tourism industry but also social tourism – subsidised holidays for deprived groups

24. Feminism Origins: – 19 th /early 20 th century campaign for political rights: votes for women Principles: – Ideology or ‘movement’? – Concept of patriarchy: men organise and control society in their own interests, to the exclusion and disadvantage of women – Reformist: reform the system (equal pay, equal opportunity, child care services, etc.) – Radical/Marxist: change the capitalist system fundamentally Parties: – Generally no specific political parties for feminism

25. Feminism and Leisure, Sport, Tourism Women generally have less leisure time than men Tradition/culture/media limit ‘acceptable’ leisure activities for women Institutions and infrastructure of leisure traditionally dominated by men Leisure can be a means of resistance against patriarchy Reformist programmes: transport access, safety, child care facilities at leisure sites

26. Environmentalism Origins: – 1960s/70s: concerns about human impacts on flora, fauna and eco-systems Principles: – Ideology or ‘movement’? – Questioning of pursuit of economic growth at the expense of the environment – Emphasis on sustainability – Reformist: legislate to prevent negative impacts – Radical: destructive capitalist system must be changed fundamentally Parties: – ‘Green’ parties exist in many countries – Have held/shared power in some European countries

27. Environmentalism and Leisure, Sport, Tourism Leisure, sport, tourism as offenders in the consumerist/materialist society …? Leisure, sport, tourism are major users of natural environments : – Requiring the concept of sustainable development/ use

28. Anti-Globalism Origins: – 1990s concern with: Western capitalism generally Activities of multi-national enterprises (MNEs) in particular – Antecedents in empires and 19 th century trade Principles: – Ideology or ‘movement’? – Opposed to MNE impacts on: Developing countries The environment Parties: – No specific parties, but some Green parties aligned

29. Anti-Globalism and Leisure, Sport, Tourism Many MNEs involved in leisure Major impact on sport, media, tourism Homogenization/Americanisation of culture..?

30. Summary See Table 2.2