1. OT 500 Spring 2016 Middle Childhood – Cognitive Development

2. PIAGET : The Stage of Concrete Operations Beginnings of adult logic: huge changes in cognitive development during this time Thought processes mostly involve tangible objects, rather than abstract ideas; are characterized by: Reversibility and flexibility (5+1=6) Less egocentricity Decentration: focus on multiple dimensions

3. What can they do now? What do they understand? Demonstrate understanding of conservation so that they know objects can have several properties or dimensions, and they can de-center and focus on more than one dimension at once Conservation of mass develops first, then weight and then volume Understand the principle of transivity: A is more B; B is more than C, so then …..A is more then C; Understand seriation (placing in order from most to least or least to most)

4. Figure 12.1 Conservation of ……….??

5. Stage of Concrete Operations: Understand Class inclusion or Classification Demonstrate an understanding of class inclusion Sorting and classifying Naming types of objects (fruits, modes of transportation etc.)

6. Applying Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development to Educational Practices Learning involves active discovery Find stimulating materials instead of imposing knowledge Instruction geared to student’s level Consider the level of cognitive development Encourage development of perspective taking Encourage group discussions and peer interaction Piaget tended to underestimate children’s abilities; Development may be more continuous; and many children master different tasks within same stage

7. Academic Learning Academic Skills: reading- grades 1-3; writing grades 1- college….basic mechanics, grammar spelling, vocab, sentence structure, organization for stories, essays, research papers etc.; Math skills…basic operations, fractions, word problems, statistics, geometry, algebra, calculus….. Study and learning skills: locating and using resources; attending, problem solving, asking questions, active listening, trial and error, working with others, organizing and prioritizing; taking notes What about motivation? Drive? Love for learning?

8. Academic Learning Expand interests: science, technology, health, history, geography, social studies, literature, politics, economics and finance…..learn how the world works, cultural differences, LEARN TO READ….READ TO LEARN….technology has changed how children learn and access information Consider cultural differences, and philosophical differences with respect to academic learning for children

9. How Does Piaget View the Development of Moral Reasoning? Two stages of moral development Moral Realism – ‘objective morality’: Emerges at about age 5 Behavior is correct when it conforms to authority or rules Rules are absolutes Punishment is inevitable Immanent justice or automatic retribution Do not excuse accidental behavior Autonomous Morality: Emerges between ages 9 and 11 Social rules are arbitrary agreements that can be changed Circumstances can require breaking rules Consider the intentions of the wrongdoer Decentration and increased empathy Develops as a result of cooperative peer relationships

10. What Is Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development? Emphasis on taking on the perspective of others; Moral reasoning follows the same sequence in all children Three levels with two stages within each level Pre-conventional level..early Childhood Obedience and punishment Instrumental orientation Conventional level Middle Childhood Good-boy/Good-girl orientation Law-and-order orientation Post-conventional level Adolescence Contractual, legalistic orientation Universal ethical principles orientation

11. Learning, Remembering, Problem Solving Information-Processing

12. What Is the Difference Between Piaget’s View of Cognitive Development and the Information Processing Approach? Information Processing Cognitive development akin to computer systems Information input, storage, retrieval, output Key Elements Selective attention Capacity for storage and retrieval of information (memory) Strategies for processing information; problem solving approaches

13. Figure 12.3 Development of the Ability to Ignore Distractions

14. What Is Meant by the Term “Memory?” Storage and retrieval of information Sensory memory; Sensory registration Working Memory: Short term memory; auditory input can be maintained longer than visual input; ….7 chunks (or digits)… for adults; 2-3 chunks for 5-7 year olds…then gradually increases; use rehearsal as a strategy What is “rote memory” or “rote learning” ?? Long-term Memory: we have no limits!!!!; permanent storage of info…although retrieval not always easy; use rehearsal, elaboration, association, sematic codes; organization into codes Children’s memory functions is a good indicator of intelligence; How do we develop recall memory?...motivation What is metacognition? Meta-memory?

15. Intellectual Development, Creativity, and Achievement

16. What Is Intelligence? Measured by an IQ test Achievement What a child has learned; Specific content area Intelligence Child’s underlying learning ability; Cognitive basis for academic achievement FACTOR THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE: Based on a statistical technique called factor analysis: Behaviors are grouped together meaningfully to represent an aspect or type of intelligence Spearman g or “general intelligence”, Broad reasoning and problem solving Verbal IQ Performance IQ S or “specific capacities” Individual abilities WHAT ABOUT THE GRE’s???? SAT’s??? Factor Analysis Primary Mental Abilities – Thurstone: visual-spatial abilities, perceptual speed, numeric ability, word meanings, word finding speed, mental reasoning

17. Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence Three Prong Theory of Intelligence Analytical intelligence Academic ability, problem solving, compare, contrast, judge, critique Creative intelligence Ability to cope with novel situations, invent, discover, theorize Practical intelligence Ability to adapt to demands of the environment; street smarts; common sense

18. What is Meant by Multiple Intelligences? (Gardner) Different kinds of intelligence ; Can be advanced in one kind of intelligence and deficient in others (9 different types) Critics question whether special talents represent an intelligence

19. Emotional and Social Intelligence ( Salovey & Mayer) Emotional intelligence Recognition and control of one’s feelings (Gardner’s intrapersonal) Social intelligence Ability to read social concerns of others and respond appropriately (Gardner’s interpersonal) What type of intelligence is needed to be a good OT? To be a good leader??? What are your own strengths and challenges within each of these types of intelligence?? Can we nurture these qualities, or are we born with them??

20. Measurement of Intellectual Development Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale (SBIS) Binet-Simon scale Assumed intelligence increases with age Older child must answer more items to obtain comparable score to younger child (mental age) Yielded a score – mental age (MA) Terman adapted Binet-Simon to become Stanford-Binet Yields a score – intelligence quotient (IQ) 2-year-olds to adults; norm-referenced test IQ = Mental Age (test score)/Chronological Age x 100

21. Measurement of Intellectual Development Wechsler Scales (Verbal scale, Non-verbal, Performance scale) Subtests measure different intellectual tasks Compares performance on one type of task with another Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scales of Intelligence (WPPSI) Wechsler Intelligence Scales for Children (WISC) Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scales (WAIS) Mean is 100; SD=15; “normal” are scores ranging from 85-115.

22. Figure 12.7 Performance Items on an Intelligence Test

23. Figure 12.8 Variations in IQ Scores

24. The Testing Controversy IQ test scores Should not be sole criteria for placement Accurately measure skills necessary in today’s high tech work Culture-bias versus Culture-free Bias for African American and lower social class Cattell’s Culture-Fair Intelligence Test Culture-free tests have not been successful Disadvantaged children consistently score lower Do not predict academic success

25. How Does Intelligence Develop? Advances in middle childhood Symbolize experiences and manipulate symbols Vocabulary development Increase logical and complex thought Two major spurts About age 6 – entry to school About age 10 or 11 Predictive power of IQ tests increases during middle childhood

26. Figure 12.10 Five Patterns of Change in IQ Scores for Children in the Fels Longitudinal Study

27. Differences in Intelligence Intellectual impairment (Mental retardation) Significant limitations Intellectual functioning (IQ scores of 70 to 75), and Problems with Adaptive Behavior Causes of intellectual impairment Biological: Genetic disorders; Birth trauma; Fetal alcohol syndrome Cultural-familial disability Giftedness Outstanding abilities and high performance In specific academic area Leadership, arts, or bodily talents

28. What Is Creativity? Ability to do things novel and useful (Sternberg) Solve problems without expected solutions Creative children Take chances, Refuse to accept limitations, Appreciate art and music, Use available materials to make unique things, Challenge social norms, Take unpopular stands, and question ideas Does Creativity overlap with intelligence? Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory includes creative intelligence; Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences include creative areas An explanation for lack of relationship is that intelligence testing requires convergent thinking while creative thinking requires divergent thinking

29. What Are the Roles of Nature and Nurture on the Development of Intelligence? Genetic Influences Measured through kinship and adoption studies More closely related – more similar IQ scores Heritability – about 40 to 60% Environmental Influences Some studies consider Situational factors that affect IQ testing Stereotype vulnerability Exploring ability to rebound from early deprivation Effects of positive early environments

30. Language Development and Literacy

31. How Does Language Develop in Middle Childhood? Vocabulary and Grammar Vocabulary expands Recognizing words can have multiple meanings Articulation and complex grammar improves Correct use and comprehension of passive sentences Use connectives Direct object – Indirect object constructions

32. What Cognitive Skills Are Used in Reading? Reading demands perceptual, cognitive, and linguistic processes Integrate visual and auditory information Able to make basic visual discriminations Reading to preschool children – prepares them for reading Methods for teaching reading: Whole-language approach; Associate visual stimuli with sound of spoken word; Acquired by rote learning Phonetic method: Associate letters with sounds they indicate – sound out words Combined Approach: Most children utilize both methods with whole-language for basic sight vocabulary, and phonetic method for decoding new words

33. What Does the Research Reveal About the Advantages and Disadvantages of Bilingualism? Bilingual children have more cognitive flexibility Aware of different cultures – broadens perspectives Learning a second language increases expertise in first language Bilingual children do not do more poorly in their academics than those who speak one language