1. UNIT SIX KEY TERMS AP HUG P.S. You could easily find this info in your textbooks and don’t need to wait until I post the info in a powerpoint to do the assignment…

2. 1. Urbanization  Definition: the process by which an increasing percentage of a country’s population comes to live in towns and cities. It may involve both rural-urban migration and natural increase.  Example/illustration: In 2011, 50% of the world’s population lived in cities. In 2050, 70% of the world’s population will live in cities.

3. Causes of urbanization 1. Rural to urban migration 1. Result of push and pull factors 2. Natural increase

4. Rural to Urban Push and pull factors Push factorsPull factors Difficult/harsh climate – eg. droughtsChance of a better life Struggle to provide food for familyBetter housing and amenities Very low incomeChance of good jobs – higher wages, more varied employment High rates of population growth have put pressure on natural resources such as water/energy/land Better medical/health care Can’t afford to fertilizers to increase yieldsChildren able to go to school Mechanization of farming favors rich farmer and leads to unemployment or underemployment of poor farmer.

5. Natural increase  The people that migrate into towns and cities tend to be young resulting in high levels of natural increase  high % of young adults = high levels of births  Falling death rates due to improved medical care means more babies are born than people dying, further increasing the urban population

7. World Urban Population

8. 2. Counter-urbanization  Definition: the movement of populations away from inner urban areas to a new town, new estate, commuter town or village on the edge or just beyond the city limits or rural-urban fringe.  Characteristic of wealthy cities in MEDCs  It is a response to increasing stress of overcrowding, congestion, pollution and crime.  Example/illustration: Alexis doesn’t want to live in the city anymore because it’s overcrowded and gross. He makes his family live in Calumet City instead

9. Reasons for counter-urbanization Increased car ownership Increased wealth De-industrialization Relocation of industry/employment to rural urban fringe Desire for safe, pleasant environment, the rural ideal/utopia Perception of urban areas as dangerous, high levels of crime, racial/ethnic problems – ‘white flight’ Change in tenure from public/renting to private ownership. Sell property and move out.

10. 3. Brownfield site  Definition: abandoned or underused industrial buildings and land, which may be contaminated but have potential for redevelopment  Example/illustration:

11. 4. Re-urbanization  Definition: (urban renewal) the development of activities to increase residential population densities within the existing built-up area of a city. – This may include the redevelopment of vacant land and the refurbishment of housing and the development of new businesses.  Example/illustration:

12. 5. Suburb  Definition: a residential area just outside the boundaries of a city.  Example/illustration: Skokie, Illinois (Roti’s hometown! Woohoo!)

13. 6. Suburbanization  Definition: the outward growth of towns and cities to engulf surrounding villages and rural areas. This may result from the out-migration of population from the inner urban areas to the suburbs.  Example/illustration: the growth of Evanston, Skokie, and Morton Grove as suburbs just north of the city

15. 7. Urban Sprawl  Definition: The unplanned and uncontrolled physical expansion of an urban area into the surrounding countryside. It is closely linked with the process of suburbanization.  Example/illustration: Mexico City  Check link for photos: http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article- 2401975/Amazing-aerial-photos-Mexico-City-natural- boundaries-stand-way.html http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article- 2401975/Amazing-aerial-photos-Mexico-City-natural- boundaries-stand-way.html

16. 8. Centripetal Movements  Definition: the migration of people into towns and cities; inward movements  Example/illustration: Comes in four forms: 1. Rural to urban migration 2. Gentrification 3. Re-urbanization 4. Urban renewal

17. 9. Centrifugal movements  Definition: the outward movements of a population from the center of a city towards its edge or periphery, resulting in the expansion of a city (also known as decentralization)  Example/illustration: Comes in three forms: 1. Suburbanization 2. Urban sprawl 3. Counter-urbanization

18. Consequences of centrifugal movements  Centrifugal movements involve a shift of population and economic activity from the center of the urban area to its periphery and beyond, which is detrimental to the center.  Construction of roads and buildings destroy open space and increases air pollution

19. Response to consequences  Urban Planners have focused on ways of reviving the urban center(urban renewal/gentrification) and restricting new construction in urban hinterlands  Hinterlands: the zone surrounding a city

20. 10. Megacities  Definition: City with a population larger than 10 million residents  Example/illustration: New York, Tokyo, New Mexico

22. The Opportunities of a Megacity  Megacities are vibrant centers of economic activity, social interaction and creativity.  Hubs in the global network of economic activities such as trade.  Megacities bring together people and resources and are able to generate huge amounts of wealth.

23. Megacity Demographics  The world's megacities take up just 2% of the Earth's land surface, yet they account for roughly 75% of industrial wood use, 60% of human water use, and nearly 80% of all human produced carbon emissions.  These figures suggest that the struggle to achieve an environmentally sustainable economy for the 21st century will be won or lost in the world's urban areas.

24. Challenges of Megacities  High population concentration and density  Uncontrolled spatial expansion  Severe infrastructural deficits  Inadequate water supply and sewage  Signs of ecological strain and overload  Poor housing provision  Increasing disparity between rich and poor

25. 11. Hinterlands  Definition: the zone surrounding a city  Example/illustration: could include the suburbs immediately next to the city

26. 12. Agglomerations  Definition: An agglomeration is the metropolitan area incorporating several large towns and cities.  Example/illustration: on next slide

28. 13. Urban hierarchy  Definition: A national arrangement of urban areas, for example from one large city to many small villages.  Example/illustration:

29. 14. Gentrification  Definition:  The Reinvestment of capital into inner-city areas.  Improvement in residential areas  It is a type of filtering that may lead to the social displacement of poor people (as a place becomes gentrified, housing prices rise and the poor are unable to afford it– often times minorities)  Example/illustration: Pilsen is a traditionally low income and Mexican community within the city; however, recently many white residents with a higher income have begun displacing the former/current residents

30. 15. Ghettoization  Definition: The process of turning something into a ghetto. Usually done across racial lines.  Example/illustration:

31. 16. Redlining  Definition: the practice of denying, or charging more for, services such as banking, insurance, access to health care, or even supermarkets, or denying jobs to residents. Is often racially determined areas.  During the heyday of redlining, the areas most frequently discriminated against were black inner city neighborhoods. For example, in Atlanta in the 1980s, banks would often lend to lower-income whites but not to middle- or upper- income blacks.  Example/illustration:

32. 17. Blockbusting  Definition: a business practice of U.S. real estate agents and building developers meant to encourage white property owners to sell their houses at a loss, by implying that racial minorities were moving into their previously racially segregated neighborhood, thus depressing real estate property values.  Example/illustration:

33. Blockbusting Tactics  The tactics included:  hiring black women to be seen pushing baby carriages in white neighborhoods  selling white neighborhood houses to black families  and afterwards placing real estate agent business cards in the neighbors’ mailboxes; and saturating the neighborhood area with fliers offering quick-cash for houses.  building developers bought houses and dwelling buildings, and left them unoccupied to make the neighborhood appear abandoned — like a ghetto or a slum — psychological manipulation that usually frightened the remaining white residents into selling at a loss.

34. 18. Racial Steering  Definition: the practice in which real estate brokers guide prospective home buyers towards or away from certain neighborhoods based on their race. Done through two methods:  Advising customers to purchase homes in particular neighborhoods on the basis of race  Failing, on the basis of race, to show, or to inform buyers of homes that meet their specifications  Example/illustration: Ms. Roti is a nice white lady, the real estate brokers only show her housing options on the north side of the city because that is where most white neighborhoods are located.

35. 19. Central Place Theory  Definition: A theory that explains the distribution of services, based on the fact that settlements serve as centers of market areas for services; larger settlements are fewer and farther apart than smaller settlements and provide services for a larger number of people who are willing to travel farther  Example/illustration: see next slide

37. 20. Primate City  Definition: found where the largest city (often the capital) completely dominates a country or region. The population size will be many times greater than that of the 2 nd or 3 rd city (unlike the rank size rule)  Example/illustration: Buenos Aires

38. 21. Periferico  Definition: Most peripheral zone of a Latin American city marked by squatter settlements and abject poverty.  Example/illustration:

39. 22. Gravity Model  Definition: Interaction between two communities is proportional to the multiplication of the two populations divided by the distance between them (distance decay).  Example/illustration:

41. 23. Burgess: Concentric Zone Model  Definition: based his studies on Chicago in the 1920s. Theory claims that most towns and cities grow outwards from an old center and equally in all directions.  Example/illustration: (image on next slide)

42. Burgess Model: Concentric Zone Model Inner city Suburbs

43. Evaluation: For If taken as a very broad pattern, then a large number of towns and cities follow the pattern identified by Burgess. It is good model because it is simple and easy to understand. Burgess could not have foreseen the changes in transport routes or society yet his model is still relevant when identifying the reasons behind the urban morphology of a city. It helps us to understand the process involved in the growth of a city.

44. Evaluation: Against  It does not take any physical features into account. Burgess' own case study - Chicago - does not follow the pattern because it is on the coast! The growth of any city will be influenced by the physical geography of the area.  Transport is much more readily available allowing more people to commute Burgess could not have foreseen this.  Urban renewal and gentrification has meant that some of the most expensive property can now be found in traditional 'low class' areas.

45. 24. Hoyt Sector Model  Definition: model created by Hoyt in the late 1930s suggesting that the city grew in a series of sectors or “wedges.” It’s based on 142 American cities and was developed after the introduction of public transportation  Example/illustration: (image on next slide)

46. Hoyt

47. Evaluation: For  Some cities seem to follow Hoyt's sectors.  It provides us with an alternative set of explanations to Burgess.  Communication routes (Rivers, roads, railways) do often provide a very definite boundary to a sector/land-use.

48. Evaluation: Against  Like Burgess, there is no reference to out of town developments.  ie: commuter towns which developed after the car became popular  Like Burgess, there is no reference to the physical environment.

49. 25. Multiple Nuclei Model  Definition: Created in 1945, claims that as an urban area grows, it develops around a number of different business centers or nuclei. It suggests that each nucleus acts as a growth point and will grow outwards until they merge into one large urban area  Example/illustration: (next slide)

50. Multiple Nuclei Model

51. Evaluations For Mixture of Burgess and Hoyt Shows some land-uses attract more of the same, for example industrial areas Some land-uses may deter others from locating nearby, eg; housing is usually located away from industrial areas

52. Evaluations Against  Not an exact fit for all cities and towns  Too complex

53. 26. Exurbanization  Definition: the process in the 1990s when upper class city dwellers moved out of the city, beyond the suburbs, to live in high-end housing in the countryside.  Example/illustration:

54. 27. Ecofeminism  Definition: describes the movements and philosophies that link feminism with ecology. It argues that there is a connection between women and nature and that women are more likely to be nurturers and preservationists to earth  Example/illustration:

55. 28. Residential segregation  Definition: physical separation of population by culture, income or other criteria  Example/illustration: see next slide

57. 29. Central Business District (CBD)  Definition: the commercial and economic core of a city (the heart of a city)  Characteristics:  Good access to public transportation  Concentration of banks/businesses  Offices  Example/illustration: downtown Chicago

58. Measuring Deprivation  Indices Used to Measure Deprivation:  Physical Indicators: quality of housing, levels of pollution, incidence of crime, vandalism, graffiti  Social Indicators: Crime (or fear of) levels of and access to health, standards of education.  Economic Indicators: access to employment, unemployment, underemployment, levels of income  Political Indicators: opportunities to vote

59. 30. Squatter Settlement  Definition: Residential areas which have developed without legal claims to the land and/or permission from the concerned authorities to build; as a result of their illegal or semi-legal status, infrastructure and services are usually inadequate.  30% of the urban population of the world live in squatter settlements. 1 Billion people! By 2050, it will be 2 billion people!  Example/illustration: (see next slide)

60. Rocinha – Rio de Janeiro Brazil

61. Slum Living Positive Aspects – Points of Assimilation for Immigrants – Informal entrepreneurs can work here – Informal employment at home (no commute) – Strong sense of kinship (family support) – Crime rates are relatively low. Negative Aspects – Security of tenure is often lacking – Basic services are absent (water and sanitation) – Overcrowding – Sites are often hazardous – Levels of hygiene and sanitation are poor and disease is common.

62. 31. Formal and Informal Economies  Definition: two urban economies that exist together universally.  The formal economy can be characterized by qualifications and training required; set hours of work and pay; job security and legal protection; well-serviced and built premises  The informal economy can be characterized by no qualifications or training required; unregulated hours and pay; labor intensive; some illegal businesses  Example/illustration:  Formal economy: bank clerk, teacher, plumber, lawyer  Informal economy: fruit vendor, drug dealer, rickshaw puller, barber

63. The advantages of the Informal Economy  Has provided many semi-skilled migrants with immediate work  The informal economy plays a vital role in the developing urban economies of many low and middle income countries  In Angola, setting up a legal business takes 13 procedures, 124 days and 500% of the average income of an Angolan  In the US, it takes 5 procedures, 5 days, and.7% of the average income of an American  Informal economy makes a large contribution to urban wealth  Informal and formal are interdependent. Goods produced in informal are often sold to formal.

64. Disadvantages of the Informal Economy  Some illegal activities: drugs, prostitution, corruption, bribery, smuggling.  Turns away potential visitors- lowers image  Health and safety risks for workers

65. 32. Sustainable City  Definition: (or “Eco-City” is a city designed to have minimal environmental impact. It meets the needs of the present without compromising the needs of future generations.  The following steps need to be taken to achieve sustainability:  Improve Economic Security  Meet Social, Cultural and Health Needs  Minimize the use of Non-Renewable Resources  Use finite renewable resources sustainably  Preserve Green Space  Example/illustration: use the steps listed above as examples used to achieve sustainability

66. Improve Economic Security People should have access to employment and an adequate livelihood If they are ill, retired, disabled or unemployed they should be entitled to economic security.

67. Meet Social, Cultural and Health Needs  Housing should be healthy, safe, secure, affordable and within a neighborhood that provides piped water, drainage, sanitation, transport, healthcare, education and child welfare.  The home and workplace should be free from hazards and chemical pollution

68. Minimize the Use of Non-Renewable Resources  Reducing consumption of fossil fuels in housing, commerce, industry and transport  Substituting renewable resources where possible.  Public transportation should be promoted.

69. Use finite renewable resources sustainably  Use only enough water that is needed  Waste minimization and recycling should be encouraged  People should be aware of the ecological footprint.

71. 33. Green Agenda  Definition: involves providing and maintaining green space such as parks and reusing existing urban sites or brownfield sites  Example/illustration: A city makes an intentional plan to keep the parks in good condition

72. 34. Roger’s Model (linear and circular systems)  Definition: created in 1997, this model compares a sustainable city (circular model) with an unsustainable city (linear model). In the sustainable city, inputs and outputs are smaller and there is more recycling  Example/illustration: see next slide for models