1. UNIT ONE: PSYCHOLOGY’S HISTORY AND APPROACHES

3. PSYCHOLOGY’S HISTORY

4. PSYCHOLOGY’S ROOTS PRESCIENTIFIC PSYCHOLOGY Ancient Greeks: Socrates, Plato and Aristotle Rene Descartes Francis Bacon John Locke –Tabula Rasa (blank slate) Empiricism

5. EMPIRICISM the view that knowledge originates in experience and that science should, therefore, rely on observation and experimentation.

6. PSYCHOLOGY’S ROOTS PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE IS BORN Wilhelm Wundt (1879) –University of Leipzig –Reaction time experiment G. Stanley Hall

7. PSYCHOLOGY’S ROOTS THINKING ABOUT THE MIND’S STRUCTURE Edward Titchener –StructuralismStructuralism introspection

8. STRUCTURALISM early school of thought promoted by Wundt and Titchner; used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind.

9. PSYCHOLOGY’S ROOTS THINKING ABOUT THE MIND’S FUNCTION William James –FunctionalismFunctionalism

10. FUNCTIONALISM a school of thought promoted by James and influenced by Darwin; explored how mental and behavioral processes function – how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish.

11. PSYCHOLOGY’S ROOTS THINKING ABOUT THE MIND’S FUNCTION Mary Calkins Margaret Floy Washburn Experimental psychology

12. EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY the study of behavior and thinking using the experimental method.

13. PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE DEVELOPS

14. Sigmund Freud The Sex Dr Pyschoanalysis

15. PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE DEVELOPS Behaviorism –John B. Watson Rosalie Raynor

16. PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE DEVELOPS Behaviorism –B.F. Skinner –“study of observable behavior” –conditioning

17. BEHAVIORISM the view that psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental processes.

18. PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE DEVELOPS Humanistic psychology –Carl Rogers –Abraham Maslow Cognitive Neuroscience

19. HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGY a historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people.

20. COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language).

21. PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE DEVELOPS Psychology –Science –Behavior –Mental processes

22. PSYCHOLOGY the science of behavior and mental processes.

23. PSYCHOLOGY’S BIG ISSUES AND APPROACHES

24. PSYCHOLOGY’S BIGGEST QUESTION Nature- Nurture Issue

26. NATURE-NURTURE ISSUE the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today’s science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture.

27. PSYCHOLOGY’S BIGGEST QUESTION Nature – Nurture Issue –Biology versus experience –History Greeks Rene Descartes Charles Darwin –Natural selectionNatural selection

28. NATURAL SELECTION the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations.

29. PSYCHOLOGY’S THREE MAIN LEVELS OF ANALYSIS

30. Levels of Analysis –Biological –Psychological –Social-cultural Biopsychosocial Approach

31. LEVELS OF ANALYSIS the differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social- cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon.

32. BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL APPROACH an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis.

33. PSYCHOLOGY’S THREE MAIN LEVELS OF ANALYSIS

37. PSYCHOLOGICAL APPROACHES/PERSPECTIVES Behavioral perspective Biological perspective Cognitive perspective Evolutionary perspective Humanistic perspective Psychodynamic perspective Social-cultural perspective

38. BEHAVIORAL PSYCHOLOGY the scientific study of observable behavior, and its explanation by principles of learning.

39. BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY the scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes. Some biological psychologists call themselves –behavioral neuroscientists, –neuropsychologists, –behavior geneticists, –physiological psychologists, or –biopsychologists.

40. COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY the scientific study of all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

41. EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY the study of the evolution of behavior and mind, using principles of natural selection.

42. PSYCHODYNAMIC PSYCHOLOGY a branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior, and uses that information to treat people with psychological disorders.

43. SOCIAL-CULTURAL PSYCHOLOGY the study of how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking.

44. PSYCHOLOGY’S SUBFIELDS

45. Psychometrics Basic Research –Biological psychologistsBiological psychologists –Developmental psychologistsDevelopmental psychologists –Cognitive psychologistsCognitive psychologists –Educational psychologistsEducational psychologists –Personality psychologistsPersonality psychologists –Social psychologistsSocial psychologists

46. PSYCHOMETRICS the scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits.

47. BASIC RESEARCH pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base.

48. PSYCHOLOGY’S SUBFIELDS Applied Research –Industrial/organizational psychologistsIndustrial/organizational psychologists –Human factors psychologistsHuman factors psychologists –Counseling psychologistsCounseling psychologists –Clinical psychologistsClinical psychologists –PsychiatristsPsychiatrists –Positive psychologyPositive psychology –Community psychologistsCommunity psychologists

49. APPLIED RESEARCH scientific study that aims to solve practical problems.

50. INDUSTRIAL- ORGANIZATIONAL (I/O) PSYCHOLOGISTS the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces.

51. HUMAN FACTORS PSYCHOLOGISTS an I/O subfield that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use.

52. COUNSELING PSYCHOLOGY a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, and marriage) and in achieving greater well-being.

53. CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treat people with psychological disorders.

54. PSYCHIATRY a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who often provide medical (for example, drug) treatments as well as psychological therapy.

55. POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY the scientific study of human functioning, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive.

56. COMMUNITY PSYCHOLOGY a branch of psychology that studies how people interact with their social environments and how social institutions affect individuals and groups.

57. CAREERS IN PSYCHOLOGY

58. BASIC RESEARCH SUBFIELDS

59. Cognitive psychologists Developmental psychologists Educational psychologists Experimental psychologists Psychometric and Quantitative PsychologistsPsychometric Social psychologists

60. DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span.

61. EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY the study of how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning.

62. PERSONALITY PSYCHOLOGY the study of an individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting.

63. SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another.

64. APPLIED RESEARCH SUBFIELDS Forensic psychologists Health psychologists Industrial/organizational (I/O) psychologistsIndustrial/organizational (I/O) psychologists Neuropsychologists Rehabilitation psychologists School psychologists Sport psychologists

65. THE HELPING PROFESSIONS Clinical psychologists Community psychologists Counseling psychologists

66. RESEARCH METHODS

68. DID WE KNOW IT ALL ALONG? HINDSIGHT BIAS Hindsight Bias –“I knew it all along”

69. HINDSIGHT BIAS the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. Also known as the “I knew it all along” phenomenon.

70. OVERCONFIDENCE Overconfidence –We tend to think we know more than we do –Richard Goranson Study WREAT ---------- WATER ETRYN------------ ENTRY GRABE------------ BARGE

71. PERCEIVING ORDER IN RANDOM EVENTS Comes from our need to make sense out of the world –Coin flip –Poker hand

72. THE SCIENTIFIC ATTITUDE: CURIOUS, SKEPTICAL AND HUMBLE Three main components –Curious eagerness –Skeptically scrutinize competing ideas –Open-minded humility before nature Hindsight bias, overconfidence and our tendency to perceive patters in random events often lead us to overestimate our intuition.

73. CRITICAL THINKING Critical Thinking –“Smart thinking” –Elements Examines assumptions Assesses the source Discerns hidden values Confirms evidence Assesses conclusions

74. CRITICAL THINKING thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluated evidence, and assesses conclusions.

75. THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD Theory –“mere hunch” Hypothesis –Can be confirmed or refuted Operational Definition Replication (repeat)Replication

76. THEORY an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events.

77. HYPOTHESIS a testable prediction, often implied by a theory.

78. OPERATIONAL DEFINITION a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures.

79. REPLICATION repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances.

80. THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

81. A good theory is useful if it: –Effectively organizes a range of self-reports and observations –Leads to clear hypotheses (predictions) that anyone can use to check the theory –Often stimulates research that leads to a revised theory which better predicts what we know

82. DESCRIPTION THE CASE STUDY Case Study –Hope to reveal universal truths –Problems with atypical individuals –Cannot discern general truths

83. CASE STUDY an descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.

84. DESCRIPTION NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION Naturalistic Observation –Describes behavior –Does not explain behavior

85. NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation.

86. DESCRIPTION THE SURVEY Survey –Looks at many cases at once Word effects Random sampling –Representative sample –Sampling biasSampling bias

87. SURVEY a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group.

88. SAMPLING BIAS a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample.

89. DESCRIPTION THE SURVEY Sampling –PopulationPopulation –Random SampleRandom Sample

90. POPULATION all the cases in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn. Note: Except for national studies, this does NOT refer to a country’s whole population.

91. RANDOM SAMPLE a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.

92. CORRELATION Correlation (correlation coefficient)Correlationcorrelation coefficient –How well does A predict B –Positive versus negative correlation –Strength of the correlation -1.0 to +1.0 –ScatterplotScatterplot

93. CORRELATION a measure of the extent to which two factors change together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.

94. CORRELATION COEFFICIENT a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1.0 to +1.0).

95. SCATTERPLOT a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter indicates high correlation).

96. Correlation

102. CORRELATION AND CAUSATION Correlation helps predict –Does not imply cause and effect

104. CORRELATION ILLUSORY CORRELATIONS Illusory Correlation –Perceived non-existent correlation –A random coincidence

105. ILLUSORY CORRELATION the perception of a relationship where none exists.

106. EXPERIMENTATION Experiment –Can isolate cause and effect –Control of factors Manipulation the factor(s) of interest Hold constant (“controlling”) factors

107. EXPERIMENT a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors.

108. EXPERIMENTATION Groups –Experimental GroupExperimental Group R eceives the treatment (independent variable) –Control GroupControl Group D oes not receive the treatment

109. EXPERIMENTAL GROUP in an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.

110. CONTROL GROUP in an experiment, the group that is NOT exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

111. EXPERIMENTATION Randomly assigned –Eliminates alternative explanations –Equalizes the two groups –Reduces the influence of other (confounding variables) –Different from random sample random sample

112. RANDOM ASSIGMENT assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups.

113. EXPERIMENTATION Blind (uninformed) –Single-Blind Procedure –Double-Blind ProcedureDouble-Blind Procedure Placebo Effect

114. DOUBLE-BLIND PROCEDURE an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or the placebo. Commonly used in drug- evaluation studies.

115. PLACEBO EFFECT experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.

116. EXPERIMENTATION INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT VARIABLES Independent Variable –Confounding variableConfounding variable Effect of random assignment on confounding variables Dependent Variable –What is being measured Validity

117. INDEPENDENT VARIABLE the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

118. CONFOUNDING VARIABLE a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment.

119. DEPENDENT VARIABLE the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

120. VALIDITY the extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is suppose to.

122. Comparing Research Methods

123. THE NEED FOR STATISTICS Understanding basic statistics is beneficial for everyone

124. DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS Descriptive Statistics Histogram (bar graph)Histogram –Scale labels

125. DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups. Include measures of central tendency and measures of variability.

126. HISTOGRAM a bar graph depicting a frequency distribution.

127. DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS HISTOGRAM

128. DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY Mean (arithmetic average)Mean Median (middle score)Median Mode (occurs the most)Mode Skewed distribution

129. MEAN the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores.

130. MEDIAN the middle score in a distribution, half the scores are above it and half are below it.

131. MODE the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution.

132. SKEWED DISTRIBUTION a representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value.

133. DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS MEASURES OF VARIABILITY Range Standard Deviation

134. RANGE the difference between the highest and lowest score in a distribution.

135. STANDARD DEVIATION a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score.

136. Standard Deviation

137. DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS MEASURES OF VARIABILITY Normal Curve

138. NORMAL CURVE a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scored fall near the mean (68 percent fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes.

139. INFERENTIAL STATISTICS WHEN IS AN OBSERVED DIFFERENCE RELIABLE? Inferential statistics Representative samples are better than biased samples Less-variable observations are more reliable than those that are more variable More cases are better than fewer

140. INFERENTIAL STATISTICS numerical data that allow one to generalize – to infer from sample data the probability of something being true to a population.

141. INFERENTIAL STATISTICS WHEN IS A DIFFERENCE SIGNIFICANT? Statistical significance –The averages are reliable –The differences between averages is relatively large –Does imply the importance of the results

142. STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance.

143. PSYCHOLOGY APPLIED Can laboratory experiments illuminate everyday life? –The principles, not the research findings, help explain behavior Does behavior depend on one’s culture and gender? –CultureCulture –Gender

144. CULTURE the enduring behavior, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next.

145. ETHICS IN RESEARCH Ethics in animal research –Reasons for using animals in research –Safeguards for animal use

146. ETHICS IN RESEARCH Ethics in human research –Informed consentInformed consent –Protect from harm and discomfort –Maintain confidentiality –DebriefingDebriefing

147. INFORMED CONSENT an ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.

148. DEBRIEFING the post experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants.

149. THE END