1. SAVING SPECIES AND ECOSYSTEM SERVICES Chapter 8

2. WHAT ROLE DO HUMANS PLAY IN THE LOSS OF SPECIES AND ECOSYSTEMS  Extinctions are natural but sometimes increase sharply  Biological extinctions occur when a species can no longer be found anywhere on earth  The disappearance of species can weaken or break some of the connections in the system  The extinction of many species in a relatively short period of geologic time is called mass extinction

3.  Human activities are causing extinction rates to rise  Extinction is a natural process but evidence indicates that extinction has accelerated as the human population has increased, consuming huge quantities of resources and creating large and growing ecological footprints

4.  Scientists from around the world have estimated that the current annual rates of species extinction is at least 100 to a 1000 times the background rate  The annual extinction rate is projected to rise to about 1% per year, mostly because of habitat loss and degradation, climate change, and other environmentally harmful effects of human activities

5.  At a 1% extinction rate, at least 25% and as many as 50% of the world’s current animal and plant species could vanish by the end of the century  A projected extinction rate of 1% a year may be on the low side, because the rate of species loss and the extent of biodiversity losses are likely to increase during the next 50 to 100 years due to the projected growth of the human population

6.  Current and projected extinction rates are much higher than the global average in parts of the world that are already highly endangered centers of biodiversity  Humans are creating a speciation crisis by eliminating or degrading many biologically diverse environments that are potential sites for the emergence of new species

7.  Human activities might help to increase the speciation rates for other rapidly reproducing opportunist species such as weeds, rodents, insects, which could further accelerate the extinction of other species

8. ESTIMATING EXTINCTION RATES  We have trouble estimating the extinction rates, beause the extinction of a species typically takes a very long time, and is not easy to document  We have identified about 2 million of the world’s estimated 8 million to 100 million species  Scientists know little about the nature and ecological roles of most of the species that have been identified

9.  Studying records that document the rates at which mammals and birds have become extinct since humans began their rapidly increasing domination of the planet about 10,000 years ago, compaing this information with fossil records of extinctions that occurred before the new age of agriculture  Decreases in habitat size does affect extinction rates, the species-area relationship suggest that on average a 90% loss of land habitat in a given areas can cause extinction of about 50% of the species living in that area.

10.  Using the (PVA) Population Viability Analysis estimates the risk of a particular species becoming endangered or extinct within a certain time period  Endangered and threatened species are ecological smoke alarms  And endangered species has so few individual survivors that the species could soon become extinct over all or most of its natural range

11.  A threatened species still has enough remaining individuals to survive in short term, but because of declining numbers, it is likely to become endangered in the near future.  Some species have characterisitics that make them especially vulnerable to ecological and biological extinction

12. TRYING TO SUSTAIN WILD SPECIES AND THE ECOSYSTEM SERVICES THEY PROVIDE  Species are a vital part of the earth’s natural capital  3 major reasons we should work to prevent our activities from causing the extinction of other species  1. the world’s species provide natural resources and natural services that help to keep us alive and support human economics- various plant species provide food for crops, fuel, wood and lumber, paper and medicine- preserving species also provides economic benefits through wildlife tourism, or ecotourism

13.  2. Analysis of past mass extinctions indicates that it will take 5 to 10 million years for natural speciation to rebuild the biodiversity that we are likely to destroy during our lifetime  3. Many people believe that each wild species has the right to exist, regardless if its useful to us

14. HOW HUMANS ACCELERATE SPECIES EXTINCTION  Loss of habitat is the single greatest threat to species. Remember HIPPCO!  The acronym HIPPCO summarizes the most important direct causes of extinction resulting from human activities.

15.  Habitat destruction, degradation, fragmentation  Invasive (nonnative) species  Population growth, increasing use of resources  Pollution  Climate change  Overexploitation

16.  Scientists say that the greatest threat to wild species is habitat loss, degradation, and fragmentation

17.  The greatest eliminators of species are:  - Deforestation in tropical areas  - Destruction and degradation of coral reefs and wetlands  - Replacement of biologically diverse grasslands with monoculture crops  - Pollution of streams, lakes, and oceans

18.  Island species, often endemic species found nowhere else on Earth, are especially vulnerable to extinction  Habitat fragmentation- by roads, logging, agriculture, and urban development- occurs when a large, intact area of habitat is reduced in area and divided into smaller, more scattered and isolated patches, or habitat islands

19.  Most natural parks and other nature preserves are known as habitat islands  After habitat loss and degradation, the biggest cause of animal and plant extinctions is the deliberate or accidental introduction of harmful invasive species into ecosystems  Most species are beneficial to us, such as crops, livestock and harvestable trees

20.  Problems arise when introduced species have no natural predators, competitors, parasites, or pathogens to help control their numbers in a new habitat  An estimated 7,100 species introduced into the United States have caused ecological and economic harm

21.  Many unwanted nonnative invaders arrive from other continents as stowaways on aircraft, in wooden packing crates, on cars, or with tourists  Terrestrial examples: the aggressive Argentina fire ant can wipe out native ant populations. Fire ant mounds can cover fields and yards. When disturbed, a 100,000 ants may attack with painful, burning stings. They have killed deer fawns, birds, livestock, pets, and at least 80 people who were allergic to their venom

22.  Pythons and boa constrictors have ended up in the Everglades in Florida after being dumped by their owners. Some reach 20 feet long and 200 pounds. They are hard to find and kill, and they reproduce rapidly. They devour birds, raccoons, pet cats and dogs, full-grown deer and alligators. Tens of thousands of these snakes now live in the Everglades and they may spread to other swampy wetlands in the southern half of the U.S.

23.  Bioinvadors also affect aquatic systems and are to blame for about two-thirds of fish extinctions in the United States between 1900 and 2009  The Great Lakes of North America have been invading species, and are threatening some native species and causing billions of dollars in damages  Fish-killing sea lamprey is an example

24.  Zebra Mussels are threatening biodiversity and commerce. It has displaced some species, depleted the food supply for others and clogged pipes, shutting down water intake pipes for power plants and city water supply.  They have also jammed ships rudders, and grown in huge masses on boat hulls, piers and other solid surfaces

25.  Prevention is the best way to reduce threats from invasive species, and scientists have suggested several ways to do so:  -Fund massive research programs to identify the major characteristics that allows species to become successful invaders and the types of ecosystems that are vulnerable to invaders.

26.  -Greatly increase ground surveys and satellite observations to detect and monitor species invasions and to develop better models for predicting how they will spread and what harmful effects they might have  -Identify major harmful invader species and establish international treaties banning their transfer from one country to another, as is now done for endangered species, while stepping up inspection of imported goods to enforce such bans

27.  Require cargo ships to discharge their ballast water and replace it with saltwater at sea before entering ports, or require them to sterilize such water or to pump nitrogen into the water to displace dissolved oxygen and kill most invader organisms  Educate the public about the environmentally harmful effects of releasing exotic plants and pets into the environment near where they live

28.  Population growth, overconsumption, pollution, and climate change can cause species extinction  Past and projected human population growth and excessive and wasteful consumption of resources have greatly expanded the human ecological footprint, impacting other species  Pollution also threatens some species with extinction, as has been shown by the unlimited effects of certain pesticides

29.  Pollution also threatens species with extinction, by the unintended use of pesticides  Each year pesticides kill 20% of the honey bee colonies that pollinate almost 33% of the U.S. food crops, kills more than 67 million birds and 6-14 million fish each year, and threaten about 20% of the country’s endangered and threatened species

30.  The pesticide DDT can be biomagnified about 10 million times in a food chain, causing animals such as the osprey, brown pelican, and bald eagle to die  Projected climate change could help drive a quarter to half of all land animals and plants to extinction by the end of the century

31.  1/3 of the United States food supply comes from insect-pollinated plants, and honeybees are responsible for 80% of that pollination.  Since 1980, there has been a 30-40% drop in the honeybee population.  Some of the possible causes are pesticide exposure, due to the wax absorbing airborne toxins.

32.  Another reason is the parasitic mites, which can wipe a colony out in hours.  Honeybee’s are also being wiped out by a virus traced from Israel.  Lastly, poor nutrition, because of a decrease in the natural diversity of flowers and other plants, in which bees feed from.

33.  In 2010, 34% of commercial honeybees in the U.S. were lost in the Colony Collapse Disorder CCD.  CCD is a mysterious disease that causes adult bees to disappear from their hives without a trace.  Beekeepers are reducing CCD, by using a very stringent hygeine, controlling the bees diet, to try and prevent viral infections

34.  Beekeepers are also trying to reduce the use of pesticides during the day, to prevent contamination of bees who are out searching for nectar.  What are some of the ways we can help with the Bee Population?

35.  Illegally killing, capturing, and selling our wild species population is threatening their extinction.  We have many people who are killing wild species for their valuable parts are sold live to collectors, known as poachers.  The global wildlife trade brings in a average of at least $600,000 an hour and at least 66% of all the live animals traded around the world die in transit.

36.  Organized crime has moved into illegal wildlife smuggling because of its huge profit. Here are some examples of the profits for these animals!  -Live mountain Gorilla-$150,000  -Giant Panda-$100,000  Poached Rhinoceros-$25,000 per pound, and are killed for no other reason but for their horns.

37.  25,000 African elephants are killed illegally for their tusks.  A coat made from fur from the Bengal tiger can sell for as much as $100,000 in Tokyo.  The tigers body parts are worth around $70,000.  More than 60 bird species, mostly parrots, are endangered or threatened because of wild bird trade.

38.  Pet trade is depleting populations of many amphibians, various reptiles, some mammals, and tropical fishes.  For each fish caught alive, many die, and the cyanide used to stun tropical fish also kills the coral polyps that build coral reefs.  Some exotic plants are endangered when they are gathered for houseplants and landscapes.  The rare orchid is worth 5 grand, and the saguaro cactus is worth 15 grand.

39.  Indigenous people in much of West Africa and Central Africa, have hunted wildlife for bush meat for centuries.  Bush meat hunting has skyrocketed as hunters try to provide food for rapidly growing populations, or to make a living by supplying restaurants for exotic meat.  Bush meat hunting has led to local extinction of wild animals, driving one species of the colobus monkey to complete extinction.

40.  The 1975 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITIES) is a treaty signed by 174 countries that bans the hunting, capturing, and selling of threatened or endangered species.  Convention of Biological Diversity (CBD), ratified 190 countries, and legally commits participating governments to revise the global decline of biodiversity, and sharing the benefits from use of the worlds genetic resources.

41.  The U.S. Endangered Species Act of 1973, was designed to identify and protect endangered species in the United States and abroad.  Under the ESA, the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) is responsible for identifying and listing endangered and threatened ocean species.  The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS), is to identify and list all other endangered and threatened species.

42.  Any decisions to add or remove a species on a list must be based on biological factors alone without consideration of economic or political factors.  The ESA forbids federal agencies (except the Department of Defense) to carry out, fund, or authorize projects that would jeopardize and endangered or threatened species, or destroy or modify its critical habitat.

43.  For offenses committed on private lands, fines as high as $100,000 and one year in prison can be imposed.  Between 1973-2011, the number of U.S. species on the official endangered and threatened species lists increased from 92 to more than 1,320.  Since 1982, the ESA has been amended to give private landowners economic incentives to help save endangered species living on their lands.

44.  Some people believe that the ESA should be weakened or repealed, and others believe that it should be strengthened and modified to focus on protecting our ecosystems.  In 1903, President Theodore Roosevelt established the first U.S. federal wildlife refuge at Pelican Island, Florida, to help protect birds such as the brown pelican from extinction.

45.  1/5 of the U.S. endangered species have habitats in the refuge system, and some refuges have been set aside for specific endangered species, such as Florida’s Keys deer, the brown pelican, and the trumpeter swan,  Activities considered harmful to wildlife such as mining, oil drilling, and use of off-road vehicles occur in nearly 60% of the nations wildlife refuges.

46.  Our countries refuges, have little to no funding, and a third of them are in disrepair and have no staff.  Gene or seed banks preserve genetic information and endangered plant species by storing their seeds in refrigerated, low humidity environments.  More than 100 seed banks around the world collectively hold 3 million samples, some problems with them, is that some species cannot be preserved in gene banks, the banks are expensive and can be destroyed easily by fire, and that the only underground vault, that has yet to be built, will be on a remote island in the Arctic and will only hold 100 million of the worlds seeds and will be protected.

47.  The worlds 1600 botanical gardens and arboreta contain living plants, representing one third of the worlds known plant species, but only 3% of the worlds rare and threatened plant species.  Some endangered or threatened species are raised on farms for commercial sale, such as alligator farms in Florida, and butterfly Papua New Guinea.

48.  Zoos, aquariums, game parks, and animal research centers are being used to preserve some individuals of critically endangered animal species, with not long term goal of reintroducing the species into protected wild habitats.  Two techniques for preserving endangered species are:  -Egg pulling, where wild eggs laid by critically endangered bird species are collected and then hatched in zoos or research centers.  -Captive breeding, where some or all of the wild individuals are captured for breeding in captivity, with the aim of reintroducing the offspring into the world.

49.  Limited space and budgets restrict efforts to maintain breeding populations of endangered species that are large enough to avoid extinction through accident, disease, or loss of genetic diversity due to inbreeding.  Biodiversity scientists call for us to take precautionary action to help prevent extinctions and loss of biodiversity.